ifi^fiiif 


Mftii 


r^. 


Report  No.  9,  Office  of  Fiber  Investigations. 


Frontispiece. 


Report  No.  9. 


U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OE  AGRICULTURE. 


FIHER    INVESTIGATIONS. 


A  DESCRIPTRH  CATALOGUE 


CSEFIL  FIBER  PLANTS  OF  THE  WORLD, 


JNCLUniXC 


THE  STRriTrilAl  AND  mmiK  riASSIFICATIOXS  OF  FIBERS. 


CHAS.    RICHARDS    DODGE, 

Special  Agent. 


WASHINGTON: 

government   printing   office. 
iSqt. 


LETTER   OF   TRANSMITTAL. 


United  States  Department  of  Agriculttre, 

Office  of  Fiber  Investigations, 

Washington,  D.  C,  January  2,  1897. 

vSiR:  I  have  the  honor  to  submit  herewith  the  manuscrii)t  of  a 
descriptive  catalogue  of  1,018  species  of  useful  fibers  of  tlie  world.  No 
similar  work  has  previously  been  published  in  this  country,  and  no 
work  has  appeared  in  any  country  with  so  full  descriptive  lists  of  the 
commercial  and  native  fibers  of  the  people  of  the  globe,  the  compila- 
tion embodj'ing  notes,  observation,  and  research  by  the  author  during 
a  i)eriod  of  over  twenty-five  years.  During  the  preparation  of  the 
work  for  publication  the  author  has  had  the  assistance  of  fiber  experts, 
botanists,  and  others,  in  nmny  lands,  and  it  is  thought  the  volume  will 
prove  a  valuable  contribution  not  only  to  the  literature  of  economic 
industries  but  to  ethno-botany  as  well. 

The  demand  made  upon  the  Department  for  information  regarding 
every  phase  of  the  fiber  industry  shows  the  extent  of  the  industrial 
interest  in  fibers  and  their  manufacture,  while  the  popular  interest  in 
this  subject  is  evinced  by  the  constant  applications  received  by  the 
Department  from  teachers  in  our  colleges  and  schools  for  fiber  speci- 
mens and  literature.  To  these  two  classes  especially  the  work  will 
l^rove  most  useful,  and  at  the  same  time  it  is  hoped  that  it  may  be  of 
assistance  to  those  writers  upon  industrial  topics  who  from  lack  of 
authoritative  information  regarding  new  fibers  have  sometimes  been 
led  into  error  and  misstatement.  The  alphabetical  arrangement  of  the 
titles,  which  include  both  the  common  and  botanical  names  of  the  fiber 
plants  described,  affords  a  ready  means  of  referring  to  any  desired 
species. 

In  the  portions  relating  to  the  study  and  uses  of  fibers  and  on  fiber 
identification  the  technology  of  fiber  work  is  presented  in  the  hope 
that  more  attention  may  be  given  to  this  work  by  American  students, 
as  it  opens  up  a  broad  field  of  practical  research. 
I  am,  respectfully, 

Chas.  Eichards  Dodge, 
Sj>e&ial  Af/ent,  in  Charge  of  Fiber  Invtstiyations. 

lion.  J.  Sterling  Morton, 

Secretary. 


PREFACE. 


A  little  over  twenty  years  ago  at  the  Philadelphia  Iiiteruatioual 
Exhibitiou  of  1876,  while  the  writer  was  acting  for  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  but  under  the  direction  of  the  late  Prof. 
Spencer  F.  Baird,  the  foundation  of  this  work  was  laid.  The  exhibi- 
tion of  187G  brought  to  this  country  many  superb  collections  iihistrating 
the  arts  nnd  industries  of  the  Avorld,  none  of  these  being  more  interest- 
ing or  complete  than  the  collections  of  textiles  and  textile  manufacture. 
Prominent  among  the  collections  of  raw  fibers  were  those  contributed 
by  the  Australian  colonies,  including  the  magniticent  series  of  Xew 
Zealand  flax  and  flax  products.  These,  with  many  other  collections, 
in  different  field's,  were  presented  to  the  United  States  Government  at 
the  close  of  the  exhibition,  the  agricultural  products  coming  to  the 
Department  of  Agriculture,  while  the  animal  and  mineral  collections 
went  to  the  National  Museum. 

Xext  to  the  Australian  collections  of  fibers,  those  from  the  several 
South  American  Eepublics  which  were  represented  in  the  exhibition 
were  j)articularly  instructive,  and  it  was  mainly  through  the  interest 
developed  by  the  superb  collections  of  these  two  regions  of  the  globe 
that  the  descriptive  list  of  fibers  which  appeared  in  the  annual  report 
of  this  Department  for  1879  was  prepared  by  the  writer.  The  Austra- 
lian exhibit  was  particularly  interesting  and  valuable,  as  it  illustrated 
a  series  of  experiments  in  economic  fiber  investigation  conducted  by 
Dr.  Guilfoyle,  director  of  the  Melbourne  Botanic  Gardens,  the  specimens 
being  properly  and  systematically  labeled  and  accompanied  by  valu- 
able notes  and  descriptive  matter. 

It  was  this  collection,  with  its  carefully  prepared  notes,  that  laid  the 
foundation  of  the  present  work,  in  which  has  been  embodied  the  notes 
of  collections  from  every  important  international  exhibition  since  that  of 
187(),  and  which  has  been  largely  augmented  by  the  results  of  personal 
study,  observation,  and  investigation  during  many  years,  as  well  as 
through  the  more  recent  examination  of  all  available  publications  relat- 
ing to  the  subject. 

The  result  has  been  the  enumeration  of  1,018  species  of  useful  fiber 
l)lants,  the  more  imx)ortant  of  which  are  fully  des(;ribed  and  treated 
from  the  botanical,  agricultural,  and  industrial  standpoints;  being 
described  or  referred  to  under  their  scientific,  commercial,  common,  and 
native  names  (as  far  as  the  latter  could  be  obtained  and  properlj^  veri- 
fied); the  kind  of  fiber  produced,  the  part  of  the  plant  producing  it,  as 
well  as  the  position  of  the  species  in  the  vegetable  kingdom,  being  indi- 
cated, and  in  some  instances  tlie  name  of  museum  or  museums  stated 
where  si)ecimens  of  the  fiber  are  preserved.  The  first  images  were 
definitely  prepared  for  publication  about  three  years  ago,  after  the  close 

3 


4  PREFACE. 

of  the  World's  Columbian  Exposition,  and  the  work  has  been  pushed, 
with  only  brief  interruptions,  from  that  time  until  the  date  of  its 
completion. 

The  object  of  the  work  has  been  to  bring  toy,ether  in  one  volume, 
arranged  for  ready  reference,  a  descriptive*list  of  such  useful  fibers  of 
the  world  as  are  known  to  be  or  that  have  been  employed  commercially, 
or  those  prepared  by  the  natives  in  the  countries  where  they  abound, 
or  that  have  been  the  subject  of  experiment,  and  shown  at  prominent 
industrial  exhibitions.  Naturally  the  sim])le  list  of  commercial  species 
would  make  an  insignificant  showing;  the  experimental  list  would  be 
much  larger,  the  greater  number  of  species  therefore  coming  into  the 
category  of  "native"  fibers,  of  which  the  Indian  hemp  {Apocymnn  cim- 
nahinvm)^t\iQ\)\sii\ii\i?it  supplies  several  North  American  Indian  tribes 
with  material  for  their  cordage,  fish  lines,  and  nets,  is  an  example. 

The  fiber  economists  find  a  most  interesting  study  in  these  native 
forms.  The  native  or  aboriginal  American  fibers  have  never  before 
been  brought  together  in  any  way  api)roaching  a  comi>lete  list,  and  in 
this  particular  especially  it  is  hoped  that  the  work  will  prove  a  valuable 
contribution  to  the  literature  of  the  economic  botany  of  our  country. 

In  like  manner,  with  the  aid  of  Mexican  and  South  American  botanists 
and  observers,  the  Central  and  South  American  lists  have  been  greatly 
augmented.  The  Australian  list  is  verj"-  full,  and  with  the  list  of  fibers 
of  India,  which  have  been  so  carefully  worked  up  by  Dr.  George  Watt 
in  the  Dictionary  of  the  Economic  Products  of  India,  and  the  lists  of 
the  more  commonly  known  species  from  other  portions  of  the  globe,  the 
work  in  its  entirety  presents  a  more  complete  catalogue  of  the  world's 
useful  fibers  than  doubtless  has  before  been  brought  together. 

The  more  than  I,(K)(>  species  of  fibers  that  are  enumerated  have  been 
described  under  the  names  by  which  they  are  known  to  botanists  rather 
than  under  their  common  names,  the  scientific  designation  more  clearly 
indicating  the  precise  jdant  that  is  meant,  while  showing  at  the  same 
time  its  exact  position  in  the  vegetable  kingdom.  The  common  and 
native  names  of  the  different  species,  however,  as  far  as  known,  have 
been  given  place  in  the  ali)habetical  arrangement,  with  the  name  of  the 
country  making  use  of  such  common  or  native  luimes,  and  followed  by 
a  reference  to  the  botanical  species.  The  descriptive  matter,  therefore, 
may  be  readily  referred  to  under  any  name  by  which  the  species  may 
be  known,  provided  it  is  known  to  this  work. 

In  the  Scientific  nomenclature,  the  Index  Kewensis  has  been  gen- 
erally followed,  exceptions  being  made  in  the  case  of  some  American 
species,  which  are  referred  to  under  names  that  are  in  most  common 
use  by  American  botanists. 

The  common  and  native  names  comi)rise  three  classes:  (1)  The  com- 
mon English  names  or  the  recognized  commercial  names,  which  in 
some  instances  have  been  derived  from  native  appellations;  (2)  the 
native  nanies  which  are  universalh'  recognized  as  the  common  names 
of  the  plants  in  the  countries  where  grown;  (."))  the  tribal,  vernacular. 


PREFACE.  O 

or  local  names,  which,  in  some  instances,  are  unknown  even  m  the 
countries  to  which  the  plant  is  native  in  localities  remote  from  the  dis- 
tricts where  it  grows.  The  vernacular  names  of  the  plants  of  India  are 
legion,  nearly  every  district  or  province  having  several,  which  may  be 
either  widely  or  only  slightly  dilferent,  from  the  names  of  the  same 
plants  growing  in  a  neighboring  ])rovince.  It  would  be  undesirable, 
therefore,  if  not  impossible,  to  reproduce  a  considerable  number  of 
these  local  or  vernacular  names;  and  another  trouble  with  such  names 
is  the  liability  of  error  through  their  orthography.  Many  of  them 
doubtless  have  been  spelled  phonetically  by  the  different  authorities, 
and  the  difference  between  chiii  and  jiti,  as  an  example,  is  sufficiently 
great  to  suggest  two  different  plants,  when  the  same  thing  is  meant 
by  both  spellings.  Xo  d(mbt  vernacular  names  have  been  multiplied 
in  this  manner,  resulting  in  more  or  less  confusion. 

Another  source  of  confusion  has  been  the  use  of  names  geuerically 
that  have  been  applied  to  a  particular  species,  or  vice  versa.  ''Mahoe" 
and  "silk  grass"  as  English  common  names  and  '•j>y7a"  and  "/.er^ff/o" 
as  native  names  are  examples.  The  leratto  of  Jamaica  is  Agave  Mor- 
risii;  the  heratio  of  the  Leeward  Islands  is  Agave  jwlyaiitha,  but  a 
dozen  other  species  of  Agave  may  be  known  as  keratto  in  other  places, 
or  keratto  may  stand  for  the  whole  group  of  Agaves.  Silk  grass  means 
anything  from  coarse  Agave  iiber  to  the  delicate  filament  drawn  Irom 
pineapple  leaves.  It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  with  the  indiscriminate 
use  of  such  familiar  common  names,  how  difficult  it  may  be  to  avoid 
fiilling  into  error,  and  when  we  consider  vernacular  or  tribal  names, 
error  is  almost  unavoidable.  Regarding  this  point  the  author  and  com- 
piler begs  to  state  that  while  the  native  names  used  in  this  work  have 
been  the  subject  of  most  careful  investigation,  with  valuable  assistance 
rendered  by  botanists  in  the  countries  from  which  they  were  derived, 
errors  no  doubt  have  crept  into  the  work.  Many  of  the  fibers  collected 
at  the  expositions,  particularly  those  from  Central  and  South  American 
countries,  have  borne  on  their  labels  only  the  native  common  or,  in 
some  instances,  the  narrowly  localized  "country"  names,  and  frequently 
it  has  been  utterly  impossible  to  trace  such  names. 

The  roots  of  many  of  these  native  names  are  words  common  to  the 
vocabulary  of  the  country,  and  when  used  in  combinations  form  a  com- 
pound appellation,  such  as  Enihira  preta,  or  the  black  einbira,  the  root 
of  emhira  signifying  something  resistant.  This  might  be  equivalent  in 
English  to  such  a  name  as  the  "black  tough."  In  unfamiliar  South 
American  Spanish  it  at  least  afltbrds  something  that  may  stand  for  a 
name,  slender  as  the  clue  may  be  toward  the  identification  of  the  plant 
from  which  derived.  Many  of  the  East  Indian  vernacular  names  are 
simply  compounds  of  adjectives  with  such  nouns  in  everyday  use  as 
"tree,"  "root,"  "vine,"  etc.  Some  of  these  are  equivalent  in  value, 
therefore,  to  similar  names  employed  in  this  country,  as  "blood-root," 
"gum-tree."  and  others. 


6  PREFACE. 

That  many  common  names  Lave  been  omitted  from  tliis  work  is  not 
the  fault  of  the  author.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  example  of  Hille 
brand,  in  the  Flora  of  Hawaii,  where  a  few  brief  lines  of  small  type  are 
given  to  matters  of  general  economic  interest,  such  as  the  native  names 
and  the  native  utility  of  the  species,  is  nut  universally  followed. 
Such  a  practice  would  greatly  enhance  the  value  of  botanical  publica- 
tions both  for  the  student  and  specialist.  The  admirable  work  of  Dr- 
J.  W,  Fewkes,  Dr,  Edw.  Palmer,  and  others  in  this  direction  is  to  be 
heartily  commended. 

Acknowledgments  are  due  for  valuable  aid  rendered  in  the  prep- 
aration of  the  work  to  Dr.  D.  Morris,  assistant  director  of  the  Koyal 
Kew  Gardens;  Dr.  A.  Ernst,  director  of  the  Xational  Museum  of 
Caracas;  Prof.  Jose  Ramirez,  botanical  department,  Instituto  Medico 
Nacional,  Mexico:  Mr.  F.  V.  Coville,  Botanist  of  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  and  Dr.  V.  Havard,  IT.  S.  A.;  also  to 
Dr.  W.  11.  Guilfoyle,  director  of  the  Botanic  Gardens,  Victoria;  Mr.  K. 
Tawara,  agricultural  bureau,  Tokyo,  Japan;  Mr.  J.  H.  Hart,  director 
of  the  botanic  gardens  of  Trinidad;  Mr.  William  Fawcett,  director  of 
the  i)ublic  gardens  of  Jamaica;  Mr.  Eomulo  Escobar  (iMexican  court, 
W.  C.  E.,  1893),  Jaurez,  Mexico;  Mr.  A.  Dorca,  of  Lima,  Peru; 
Mr.  Herbert  Putnam,  librarian  of  the  Boston  Public  Library;  Mr.  Gus- 
tav  Niederlein,  of  the  Phihidelphia  (Jommercial  Museum;  Dr.  George  L. 
Goodale,  Harvard  T  diversity  Botanical  Museum ;  Dr.  L.  M.  Underwood, 
department  of  botany,  Columbia  University,  New  York;  Mr.  J.  R.  Dodge, 
formerly  statistician  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture;  Prof.  William 
H.  Seaman,  United  States  Patent  Oflice:  Dr.  Thomas  Wilson,  Dr.  J.  W. 
Fewkes,  Dr.  Otis  T.  Mason,  and  Mr.  Walter  Hough,  United  States 
National  Museum;  and  Messrs.  Lyster  H.  Dewey  and  E.  S.  Steele, 
assistants,  botanical  division  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  for 
their  kind  offices  in  the  collection  of  material  for  the  work  and  for 
assistance  in  other  ways.  And  I  recall  the  name  of  one  whose  friendly 
encouragement  in  all  my  endeavors  will  ever  be  held  in  grateful  remem- 
brance, the  late  Dr.  George  Brown  Goode. 

To  the  many  friends  who  have  aided  in  the  work  and  whose  names 
only  appear  in  the  list  of  contributors,  on  another  page,  I  also  desire  to 
express  my  thanks  for  interesting  notes  of  species,  which  have  added 
greatly  to  the  value  and  completeness  of  the  publication  in  its  entirety. 

For  the  photographs  of  palms  from  which  fig.  2,  PI.  VI,  and  the  fig- 
ures on  PI.  IX  were  reproduced,  I  am  indebted  to  Mr.  W.  S.  Gavey,  of 
Brooklyn,  K.  Y.;  for  the  print  of  California  hemp,  to  Mr.  Siduey  E. 
Meltzer,  Bakersfiehl,  Cal.;  for  the  photograph  of  A<jar<^  dccipiens  to 
Mr.  Alfred  Monroe,  Concord,  Mass.,  and  to  Prof  William  Trealease, 
of  the  ^lissouri  Botanic  Garden,  for  the  original  of  fig.  2,  PL  XII. 
The  frontispiece  and  PI,  XI  are  from  negatives  in  possession  of  the 
Department.  xVll  other  plate  illustrations  are  from  negatives  made  by 
the  author. 

C.  R.  D. 


CONTEXTS. 


Page. 

Definition  of  tiliers 9 

The  ancient  nses  of  libers 11 

Principal  fibers  used  commercially  in  the  United  States,  and  their  imports. ...  15 

Economic  investigation 17 

Chemical  investigation 19 

Micro-chemical  study  of  fibers 22 

The  classification  of  fibers,  based  on  uses  and  structure 22 

Structural  classification .* 23 

Economic  classification 27 

Descriptive  catalogue  of  w(nld's  fibers 34 

Authorities  and  contributors 338 

Appendix 346 

A.  Brief  statements  regarding  fiber  machinery 346 

B.  Prof.  W.  H.  Seaman,  "On  tlie  identification  of  fibers" 352 

C.  Dr.  Thomas  Wilson,  article  on  "Description  and  History  of  Lace" 359 

7 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Pulling  flax.    Field  o( Linum  vsitatissimum.    Frontispiece. 

I    1   The  Century  plant,  Ar/ancnmericana.    2,  Tanipico  hemp  plant,   Agave  ln'ieracantUa. 
II.  1,  Sisal  henip,'^l'/at'('  rUiida  sisalana.    2.  False  -sisal  hemp.  Agave  deeipiene. 

III.  1,  An  unidentified  Florida  Agave.    2,  Pineapple  plant.  Ananas  sativa. 

IV.  1   Ahunch  of  Cocoannts.  Oocosniicifera.    2,  Texas  bear  grass,  i?a»i//in'oH. 

T.  1,  Louisiana  jute,    Coichorus.    2.  Sunn  hemp  plants.   Crutalaria  juncea.    3.  California  hemp, 
Cannabis  sativa. 
TI.  1,  Forster's  palm  lily.  Cordyline  ausfralis.    2,  The  Chusan  palm,  Trachycarpusfovtunei. 
VII.  1,  Mauritius  hemp  plant.  Furcrtea  gigantea.    2,  New  Zealand  flax.  Phormium  tenax. 
VIII.  1,  China  gra-ss  foliage,  Boehmeria  nivea.    2,  Sponge  cucumber,  Lxiffa  cegyptica.    3,  A  plant  of 
Sansevieria  lonqiltora. 
IX.  1,  Talipot  palm,  Conij>l>fi  inntnacnlifera.    2,  Screw  pine,  Pandanus  odnialissinnis. 

X.  1.  Cabbase  palmetto!  Sahal  palmetto.     2.  Saw  palmetto,  Serenoa  nerrulata. 
XI.  The  Tree  Vuecaof  the  Mohave  desert,  Tueea  arborescent. 
XII.  1,  Bear  grass,  Yitcca  rilamcntosa.    2,  A  plant  of  Yucca  sp  ,  allied  to  bacratn. 


Pag.'. 

1.  Woodv  cella  of  the  Buttonwood,  after 

Gray 9 

2.  Structural   fiber.    Transverse    section 

through    a    flbro  vascular    bundle  of 

sisal  hemp,  after  Morris 10 

3.  Bast  fiber.    Flax  highly  niagnitied   26 

4.  Surface  liber,     (.^otton  highly  niagnilied  27 

5.  Spbagnummoss.  Exampleofafal.se liber  28 

6.  Indian  mallow,  Abutilo/i  ariceitnce 36 

7.  Plant  of  Acanthorliiza  vjar-icewiczii 39 

8.  Mucujil  A crocomia  lasiospatha 40 

9.  An  old  jilant  of  Agave  decipiens 4.5 

10.  Plant  of  Agare  deserti 46 

\\.  'Lea.ioi  Agavehtteracantha 47 

12.  Blossoms  of  false  sisal  hemp  plant 49 

13.  Pole  plants  of  slipsof  .lf;«»«  Si'-saJaffa. ..  .50 

14.  Leaves  of  J^jTflrc  rij/it/o,  the  true  sisal  ..  51 

15.  Leaves  of  Ajoiic  rf«"ijj('('(i.«,  or  false  sisal.  51 
IG.  The  Easpador  or  Mexican  machine 52 

17.  The  Van  Buren  machine  used  in  the  De- 

partment's Florida  experiments 53 

18.  Leaves  of  unideutitied  Florida  jljrafv?.   .  54 

19.  Marram  grass.  Amniopliila  arenaria  ...  56 

20.  Indian  hemp   plant,   Apuc.ymim  cantta- 

binu  m 03 

21.  Young  Betel-nut  palm,  Areca  catechu  ..  65 

22.  Sago  palm  of  Malacca,  Annga  aacchari- 

fera 60 

23.  Deviceformauufactiireof  artificial  silk-  67 

24.  Cane,  Arundinaria  gigantia 09 

25.  Swamp  milk- weed,  AirJ'^^iaA- i/icnroafff-  72 

26.  The    Murumuru     palm,     Attrocaryum 

murum  uri't -  73 

27.  The  Tecuma  palm,  Jl.stcoc«c^M)/i  f»c»)iia  74 

28.  The  Tucum  palm.  Astrocaryum  vidgare  75 

29.  Bahia  Piaasaba  palm,  .4<<oie«/i(n(/tcrt  -  77 

30.  Hactris  integrifolia 78 

31.  Leaves  of -BaH/u'nirt  ra/iKi 82 

S2.  A  properly  grown  stalk  of  ramie 86 

33.  An  improperly  grown  stalk  of  ramie...  88 

34.  Clusters  of  flower  racemes  of  ramie 89 

35.  Eamie  roots  for  planting,  before  subdi- 

vision    90 

36.  Leaf  of  Broussonetia  papyri/era 99 

37.  The  hemp  plant.  Cannabis  iativa 107 

38.  Kentucky  hemp  brake 109 

39.  Carc.r  paniculata 110 

40.  The  Kittoolpalm,  C'aci/ofn  iofus 112 

41.  Cocoanut  tree,  Cape  Florida 121 

42.  Section  of  a  cocoanut 122 

43.  Seed  vessels  of  Corchortis  capsularis  . . .  126 

44.  Seed  vessels  of  Cocc/ioc««  oii'<ocu(« 127 

45.  Plant  of  jute,  Corchoriis  cap.i^tlaris 128 

46.  Leaf  and  blossom  of  Crotalariajuncea  -  140 

47.  A  \t\-Aiit  of  Desn^onciis  7nacroacantln'i  ..  149 

48.  Tree  fern ,  Dickson  ia 150 

49.  Plant  of  7)(af()pna  rfcaco 153 

50.  The  oil  palm,  Elms  gidneensis 155 

51.  Elymus  arenarius 157 

52.  The  Mexican  broom  root,   Epicampes 

)nacruura 158 


Page. 

53.  Cotton    grass,  Eriophonim    angusti/o- 

Hum 160 

54.  The  le.sser  cotton  grass,  Eriophoruvi 

latifolium 161 

55.  TiiQ  AiiSSi\,  Euterpe  oleracea 164 

56.  Leaves  of  Ficits  religiosn 165 

57.  The  Ubimraua,  6ff'ono»'-<nnM?(i"rfocrt  ...  172 

58.  Tlie  cotton  plant,  Gossypium  .'. 174 

59.  Sea  Island  cotton 175 

60.  Upland  cotton 177 

61.  Peach  palm,  Guilielina  siieriot^a 188 

62.  Leaf  and  blossom  of /A7ji>c(/«  W/i^)(.'!. ..  193 

63.  Loaves  and  blossoms  of  Hibiscus  inos- 

cheutos 196 

64.  Hopi    Indian    basket    grass,     JJHaria 

jameiii 198 

65.  The  Doum  palm,  MyplKeni' thebaica  ...  201 

66.  The  Bhabur grass,  Ischceinum  aiigusli- 

folium 203 

67.  The  Paxiuba,  Iriartea  exorrhiza 204 

08.  The  Paxiviba-mira, /)•!'« /-tf a  .sy^if/eri. ..  204 

09,  Jubcea  ijjectabilis,  greenhouse  plant. ..  205 

70.  Juncus  acutiis 206 

71.  The  Jai)anese  mat  rush,  J'i(ncu«  ?/'««((«  206 

72.  Juncwi C!jngliim''ratus 207 

73.  The  Para  Piassaba  palm,  Leopoldinia 

2)iassaba 216 

74.  TJie  ancient  flax  plant,  Linuni  angvsti- 

folium .' 218 

75.  Conimou  fiax,  L-inum  iisitatissiminn 220 

73,  Method  of  forming  stocks 225 

77.  A  \eaf  of  Mac rozamia  d^)ti.^onii 232 

78.  The  Bussu  palm,  Manicaria  saccifera . .  234 

79.  Maranta  aru n din acea 236 

80.  Thaltki^iAm,  Mauritia  flexunsa 238 

81.  The  Carana  palm,  Mavritia  aculeata  . .  238 

82.  The  Ina,ja  palm.  Ma.ri)niliana  regia  ...  239 

83.  The  Sago  palm,  Mctroxylon  sagu 241 

84.  Leaf  of  2Ionstera  deliciosa 242 

85.  The  banana,  or  plantain,    2lu.sa  sap- 

ientxim 246 

86.  The  Bacc^ba,  (Enocarpus  bacaba 252 

87.  The  Patawa,  CEnoearjitis  bataua 2.i3 

88.  Barnvarrt  grass,  Panicum  crus.rialti. ..  258 

89.  The  date  palm,  Phanix  dartylifera 261 

90.  iieed-graaa,  Phragmites  com ii4vnis 265 

91.  Kentucky  blue  grass,  J'oa  pratensis  . . .  273 

92.  The  Raflia  palm,  Baphia  ruffla 277 

93.  The  Jupati  palm, /("nt^j/iia  run/fca 278 

94.  A  plant  of  .B«i'P)!n?a ". 279 

95.  Tlie  bulrush,  <S'c(y/J!/s  Jac((«?»'j« 291 

96.  Cord  grass,  Spartlna  cyiiosuroidcs 301 

97.  Prairie  grass.  Sporobolus  cryptandrus.  303 

98.  Tacca  pinnati/ida,  young  plant 309 

99.  Plant  of  Th rihax  pa rvijtora 312 

100.  Cat  tail  flag,  Fypha  angustifolia 319 

101 .  The  Ciesar  weed,  Vrena  lobata 321 

102.  Plant  of  Vrera  tenax 323 

103.  Flax  scutching  device 347 


rSEFl'L  FIBER  I'L.-WTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


DEFINITION    OF   FIBERS. 


The  tissue  of  plauts  when  viewed  nuder  the  microscope  is  seen  to  be 
made  up  of  cells  which  are  compacted  together  as  they  are  formed  dur- 
ing- the  growth  of  the  plant,  thus  slowly  building  up  roots,  stems,  and 
leaves.  The  walls  of  these  cells  iuclose  the  life  germ,  or  protoplasm,  and 
the  substance  of  which  they  are  composed  is  known 
as  cellulose,  which  chemically  is  very  similar  to  starch, 

Eegardiug  the  size  ot  the  cells  of  which  common 
plants  are  made  up.  Dr.  Gray  states  that  their  ordi- 
nary diameter  in  vegetable  tissue  is  between  one 
tliree-hundredth  and  one  five-hundredth  of  an  inch. 
The  smaller  of  these  sizes  would  allow  as  many  as 
125,000,000  cells  in  the  compass  of  a  cubic  inch.  "All 
soft  cellular  tissue,  as  leaves,  pith,  and  green  bark,  is 
called  parenchyma,  while  fibrous  and  woody  plants 
are  composed  of  prosen(;hyma,  that  is,  of  peculiarly 
formed  strengthening  cells."  We  are  also  told  that 
those  cells  that  lengthen  and  at  the  same  time  thicken 
their  walls  form  the  proper  woody  fiber,  or  wood  cells; 
those  of  larger  size  and  thinner  walls,  which  are  thick- 
ened only  in  certain  parts  so  as  to  have  peculiar  mark- 
ings, and  which  often  are  seen  to  be  made  up  of  a  row 
of  cylindrical  cells,  with  the  pa'rtitions  between  ab- 
sorbed or  broken  away,  are  called  ducts,  or  sometimes 
vessels.  There  are  all  gradations  between  wood  cells 
and  ducts,  and  between  both  these  and  common  cells. 
But  in  most  plants  the  three  kinds  are  fairly  distinct. 
Wood  cells,  or  woody  fibers,  consist  of  tubes,  com- 
monly between  one  and  two  thousandths  of  an  inch. 
in  diameter.  A  highlj^  magnified  group  of  these  cells  from  Button- 
wood  (after  Gray)  illustrates  the  manner  in  which  wood  cells  are  put 
together,  their  ends  pointed  and  overlai)ping,  thus  strengthening  the 
whole.      (See  fig.  1.) 

Wood  cells  also  occur  in  the  bark,  though  they  are  longer,  finer, 
and  tougher  than  those  found  in  the  wood.  They  form  the  princi- 
pal part  of  fibrous   bark,  or   the   bast   layer,  and   are  called   Bast 

9 


Fig.  1.— Woody  cells 
of  Buttonwooil. 


10 


USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


cells.  These  give  tougliuess  and  flexibility  to  the  structure,  and 
the  extracted  bundles  of  these  cells  form  the  filamentous  product 
known  economically  as  fiber,  such  as  flax,  hemp,  and  jute,  derived 
from  Dicotyledonous  plants.  "In  Monocotyledons  the  fibrous  cells 
are  found  built  up  with  vessels  into  a  composite  structure  known  as 
fibro  vascular  bundle."    (Dr.  Morris.)     Such  fiber  occurs  in  the  palms, 

and  in  the  fleshy-leaved 
Agaves,  like  the  century 
plant,  the  fibro-vascular 
bundles  being  found,  not  in 
the  outside  covering  of  the 
trunk,  as  in  bark,  but 
throughout  the  stem,  or  leaf, 
forming  what  may  be  termed 
(in  an  Agave  leaf,  for  exam- 
ple) the  supi)ortiug  struc- 
ture, or  that  which  gives 
rigidity  and  toughness  to 
the  leaf.  These  filaments  or 
bundles  of  elongated,  thick- 
ened cells,  pressed  firmly  to- 
gether, when  extracted  or 
^     „    ^.   ,,       ,,        .  .^         .   ,         „,  separated  from  the  soft  cell 

section    through   a   fibro-vascular  hiuidle    embedded    in  maSS  by  whicll  they  are  SUr- 

(PaR)  the  cellular  parenchyma  :  S.  S.  starch  layer,  form-  roni^(](»(l      maV  bC   kuOWU    IS 
ing  a  ring  round  the  sclerenchyma  (SCL.), '^itli  the  fiber  ttu  j? 

cells  closely  packed  together ;  M.  L.,  middle  lamella :  B.  STRUCTURAL      1  iber,      Of 

S.,  bundle  slieath;   X.,  xylem,  or  wood  cells;  P.  H  ,  phloem,  wllicll  the  fiber  of  Sisal  hemp 

or  bast  cells,    ■   300.  .  ,  ,  oi         ,.        r»  v 

IS  an  example,  (feee  fig.  2.) 
The  simple  cells  already  described,  when  single  or  agglutinated 
and  produced  on  the  surfaces  of  the  leaves,  stems,  and  seeds  of  plants 
as  hairs,  form  a  fibrous  material  also  valuable,  to  which  the  name  Sur- 
face Fiber  has  been  given.  Such  hairs  are  found  enveloping  the  seeds 
of  j)lants,  and  when  they  are  produced  in  the  bolls  or  capsules  of  spe- 
cies of  Gossypium  form  the  cotton  of  commerce. 

The  fiber  bundles,  therefore,  whether  occurring  as  bast  fiber  or  struc- 
tural fiber,  or  whether  in  the  form  of  simple  cells,  as  surface  fiber,  may 
be  regarded  as  the  spinning  units,  and  a  flax  thread  is  but  an  aggrega- 
tion of  bundles  of  bast  cells  purified  and  cleansed  of  all  extraneous 
matter  and  simply  twisted  together.  In  the  perfecting  of  processes, 
therefore,  for  separating,  cleansing,  and  purifying  the  bundles  of  cell 
structure  known  as  fibers  a  knowledge  of  their  physical  structure  is 
absolutely  essential.  The  rotting  of  a  fiber  is  simply  the  breaking  down 
of  the  cellular  structure  or  complete  separation  of  the  individual  cells, 
by  which  means  the  filament  is  resolved  into  its  smallest  parts,  each 
part  being  measured  by  the  length  to  which  the  original  cell  attains: 
during  the  period  of  its  growth. 


THE  ANCIENT  USES  OF  FIBERS.  11 


THE  ANCIENT  USES  OF  FIBERS. 


It  has  already  been  noted  as  an  interesting-  fact,  tliougli  in  no  wise  a 
remarkable  one,  that  the  most  valuable  commercial  tibers  of  to-day 
were  the  prominent  fibers  of  ancient  times,  illnstrating,  in  a  word,  the 
survival  of  the  fittest.  Flax,  cotton,  hemp,  the  liliaceous  fibers,  many  of 
the  palms,  reeds,  and  grasses  were  known  and  valued,  in  past  ages  on 
both  hemispheres,  being  employed  in  connection  with  the  common  animal 
fibers,  as  wool,  hair,  and  silk.  When  or  how  vegetable  fibers  first  came 
to  be  used  will  never  be  known,  but  it  is  i^ossible  that  they  were  first 
employed  in  aiding  man  to  secure  his  food,  as  the  natives  of  every 
country  from  the  burning  tropics  to  the  frigid  north  have  drawn 
largely  ui^on  the  resources  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  for  their  fish 
lines  and  nets.  And  it  might  further  be  conjectured  that  the  rude 
knotting  of  the  twisted  filaments  of  fiber  in  the  form  of  nets  may  have 
first  suggested  weaving  and  the  substitution  of  vegetable  clothing  for 
the  skins  of  animals. 

Flax  has  a  greater  antiquity  than  any  of  the  fibers  of  whicli  we  have 
knowledge,  for  its  cultivation  goes  back  to  the  Stone  Age  in  Europe. 
It  is  known  to  have  been  manufactured  by  the  Swiss  Lake  Dwellers,  a 
i:)eople  contemporaneous  with  the  long-extinct  mammoth  and  other 
great  mammals  of  the  (Quaternary  Epoch,  as  specimens  of  the  straw, 
fiber,  fabrics,  etc.,  prepared  by  them  are  preserved  in  the  nuiseums.  It 
is  sui)posed  that  the  species  cultivated  at  that  remote  period  of  the 
world's  history,  concerning  which  no  written  records  remain,  was  Linum 
august  if olium,  while  at  a  later  period,  though  still  remote  by  four  or  five 
thousand  years,  the  Egyptians  cultivated  the  species  known  to-day  as 
commercial  flax  {Linum  usitatissiiuum). 

Before  the  books  of  Genesis  and  Exodus  were  written  the  Egyptians 
were  skilled  in  spinning  and  weaving  flax,  for  both  the  culture  and  the 
manufacture  of  this  textile  are  jiictorially  carved  upon  the  bas-reliefs 
and  upon  the  walls  of  palaces,  temples,  and  tombs.  Egyptian  fabrics 
of  linen  4,500  years  old  and  preserved  in  the  museums  and  among^ 
the  mummy  cloths — fabrics  from  the  most  delicate  tissues  to  linen-like 
sailcloth — have  l)een  found,  and  as  many  as  300  yards  were  sometimes 
used  to  enwrap  one  body.  The  linens  were  both  white  and  dyed  in  col- 
ors— yellow,  red,  and  purple — and  they  were  handsomely  embroidered. 
Spinning  and  weaving  in  Bible  times  were  household  industries,  as  we 
are  assured  by  many  references  to  women  and  flax.  The  Phoenicians 
did  much  to  extend  the  culture  of  flax  and  the  art  of  weaving  linen,  as 
their  ships  plowed  the  Atlantic  more  than  three  thousand  years  ago, 
even  journeying  to  Britain,  for  they  were  a  nation  of  traders,  and  there 
is  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  Chaldeans  excelled  in  spinning  and 
weaving  flax,  while  the  Babylonians  centuries  before  Christ  were  noted 
for  their  luxury  and  the  high  state  of  development  of  their  textile  art, 
flax,  cotton,  and  wool  being  manufactured  by  them. 


12  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

Wool  was  more  grown  in  ancient  Greece  than  flax,  though  the  latter 
textile  was  produced  in  certain  favorable  districts  and  imported  in 
large  quantities  for  maiuiiacture.  There  was  a  distinct  linen  industry, 
slaves  being  the  operatives,  as  well  as  a  household  industry,  for 
whether  in  the  cottage  or  the  palace,  if  possible,  a  special  room  was  set 
apart  for  the  occupation  of  weaving.  In  Homeric  times  not  only  were 
maids  and  ladies  of  high  degree  familiar  with  weaving,  but  with 
spinning  and  embroidery,  and  the  distaft"  and  spindle  were  often  made 
of  ivory  or  of  gold.  As  in  Greece,  so  in  IJome  there  were  regular 
linen  establishments,  and  at  the  same  time  a  domestic  maiuifactnre 
practiced  by  maids  and  matrons.  Woolen  was  earlier  used  for  cloth- 
ing by  the  PiOmans;  then  linen  was  employed,  first  for  domestic  uses, 
then  as  a  dress  material,  the  women  adopting  it  before  the  men. 

Eegarding  the  early  use  of  linen  in  our  own  country,  the  time  when 
American  history  began  to  be  made  is  so  recent  that  the  word  ancient 
does  not  apply.  It  has  been  stated  that  both  flax  and  hemp  were  known 
to  the  ancient  Mexicans  or  Aztecs,  though  I  can  refer  to  no  records 
which  relate  to  their  use. 

While  it  has  been  shown  that  cotton  was  the  ancient  national  textile 
of  India,  its  cultivation  and  use  were  by  no  means  confined  to  that 
country.  Flax  was  the  aristocratic  textile  of  P^gypt,  and  was  gen- 
erally cultivated,  but  cotton  was  grown  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
country.  Cotton  and  linen  were  sometimes  woven  together  (tlax  warp 
and  cotton  woof),  just  as  mixed  ^'tow  linen"  is  made  in  the  mountains 
of  Virginia  and  North  Carolina  to-day.  These  Egyptian  mixed  fabrics, 
as  well  as  pure  cotton  cloths,  were  largely  used  in  upholstery  as  the 
coverings  of  chairs  and  couches,  and  probably  also  as  drai)ery  hang- 
ings. The  cottons  of  India  weie  famous,  and  Hindoo  muslins  were 
formerly  produced  that  were  so  fine  that  when  laid  upon  the  grass  and 
wet  with  dew  they  became  invisible.  The  marvelous  fabrics  of  Cos 
and  Tarentum,  by  some  said  to  have  been  made  from  cotton,  were  more 
likely  silk,  as  they  are  described  as  floating  like  mist  around  the  female 
form,  disclosing  the  contour  like  a  gauze  veil.  There  is  also  the  record 
of  a  muslin  turban  30  English  yards  in  length,  contained  in  a  cocoanut 
set  with  jewels,  which  was  so  exquisitely  fine  that  it  could  scarcely 
be  felt  by  the  touch.  It  is  impossible  to  say  how'  far  back  into  the 
ages  cotton  was  first  used  in  India,  and  though  it  is  referred  to  800 
B.  C,  we  may  be  sure  that  the  industry  was  old  at  that  time.  Cotton 
was  a  late  introduction  into  Greece,  though  it  was  known  200  B.  C, 
and  even  linen  was  an  introduced  textile,  which  came  sloAvly  into  favor 
at  a  time  when  wool  was  almost  universally  used. 

Turning  to  the  Western  World  and  to  the  aboriginal  civilization  of 
the  Incas,  we  find  the  ancient  Peruvians,  with  their  simple  handlooms, 
were  enabled  to  produce  fabrics  that  were  marvels  of  design  and 
exquisite  in  color  and  finish.  Both  cotton  and  wool  were  used  in  the 
difl'erent  articles  of  dress  of  these  people  with  other  fibers.    The  Aztecs, 


THE    ANCIENT    USES    OF    FIBERS.  15 

or  ancient  Mexicaus,  Avere  familiar  with  cotton,  as  well  as  several  otber 
vej^etable  libers.  With  cotton  and  feathers  we  are  told  they  produced 
a  soft  and  beautiful  tabric,  which  was  used  for  mantles  and  blankets, 
iind  examples  of  their  plain  cotton  fabrics  are  said  to  have  been  as  fine 
as  some  of  tlie  imported  linens  of  the  present  age.  Eegarding  the  early 
use  of  cotton  on  this  continent,  there  are  abundant  records  to  show 
that  it  has  been  cultivated  more  or  less  generally  for  four  or  five  centu- 
ries. How  long  it  has  been  known  to  the  early  ancestors  of  some  of  the 
native  Indian  tribes  of  our  own  country  will  never  be  known,  although 
from  the  fact  that  its  use  is  required  in  religious  ceremonials,  as  in  the 
Hopi  Indian  tribe,  for  example,  we  may  be  sure  that  such  use  is  no 
modern  innovation. 

Among  the  ancient  libers  of  India,  we  have  early  allusions,  in  the 
Institutes  of  Menu,  to  several  i)rominent  fibers,  particularly  where 
the  material  of  the  sacrificial  thread  is  prescribed.  Cotton,  sana,  and 
woolen  thread  are  mentioned.  Sana  has  been  supposed  to  refer  to  Sunn 
hemj),  one  of  the  commercial  fibers  of  the  present  time  {Croi(daria 
juncea).  I)r.  Watt  says  the  possible  sana  fibers  of  the  Sanscrit  authors 
were  Sunn,  above  mentioned,  sa}q)at,  or  Hibiscns  cannnhinus.,  and  com- 
mon hemp  [Cannabis  saliva).  On  the  whole,  the  evidence  is  in  favor  of 
Sunn.  Hemp  grows  wild  throughout  India,  just  as  it  is  found  in  a  wild 
state  in  many  parts  of  our  own  country,  but  is  regarded  as  the  source 
of  the  drug  known  as  bhang,  or  hasheesh,  rather  than  as  a  fiber  plant. 
We  know  that  the  use  of  hemp  among  the  ancients  was  very  limited.  It 
has  nomention  in  the  Scriptures,  and  it  israrely  referred  toby  theheathen 
writers  of  antiquity.  It  was  used  by  the  Scythians  at  least  five  hundred 
years  before  the  Christian  era,  and  some  writers  attribute  to  its  cultiva- 
tion an  antiquity  more  remote  by  a  thousand  years;  and  it  was  known 
to  the  Chinese  at  a  period  quite  as  remote.  The  Romans  were  familiar 
with  the  use  of  hemp  for  sails  and  cordage,  though  not  until  after  the 
dawn  of  the  Christian  era. 

The  China  grass  fiber,  more  poi)ularly  known  as  ramie,  has  been  grown 
in  the  Orient  from  time  immemorial,  and  modern  writers  have.attempted 
to  prove  that  it  was  contemporaneous  with  flax  several  thousand  years 
ago  in  Egypt,  if,  indeed,  it  was  not  used  for  mummy  cloth.  Dr.  Watt 
also  advances  a  suggestion  regarding  ramie  which  would  give  it  a  great 
antiquity  in  India.  He  states  that  frequent  reference  is  made  in  the 
Eamagana  to  a  garment  called  the  kshanma,  and  goes  on  to  say  that 
while  Ishaxma  is  generally  regarded  as  a  name  for  linen,  the  word 
strongly  resembles  the  Chinese  name  of  the  grass-cloth  plant,  or  ramie, 
which  is  Chn-ma,  schou-ma,  or,  as  now  most  commonly  written,  ichou-ma. 
The  use  of  ramie  fiber  is  undoubtedly  old,  but  how  ancient,  history  does 
not  inform  us. 

The  date  palm,  as  we  know,  aflbrded  a  valuable  material  for  cordage 
in  Egypt  in  very  earlj'  times,  as  the  modern  excavations  have  revealed 
to  us,  and  the  fiber  is  valued  quite  as  highlj^  by  the  present  inhabitants 


14  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

of  the  couutiy:  and  the  aucient  Chakleaiis,  or  Babylonians,  are  said  to 
have  used  this  pahii  lor  everything— food,  clothing,  wine,  and  the  timber 
for  tbeir  habitations.  There  is  plenty  of  evidence  that  palm  fiber  was 
employed  throughout  this  entire  region  of  the  ancient  world. 

Pliny  tells  us  that  even  the  papyrus  [Cuperus  papyrus)  was  used  for 
cordage  in  Egypt,  as  well  as  for  matting,  curtains,  and  sails,  and 
Warden  says  that  small  boats  were  sometimes  made  from  tbe  plant. 
Ancient  vessels  of  bulrushes  are  mentioned  V)y  Isaiah,  and  Lucan  alludes 
to  the  manner  of  binding  and  sewing  them  with  papyrus.  The  use  of 
papyrus  for  paper  is  even  more  interesting.  (See  description  of  tlie 
mode  of  preparation  under  the  title  Cyperun  papyrus  in  the  catalogue.) 
In  the  realm  of  rank  aquatic  vegetation  we  may  note  a  reed  known  as 
Arundo  donax,  which  has  been  regarded  as  the  ''reed"  of  the  Scrip- 
tures: '"A  bruised  reed  shall  he  not  break,  and  the  smoking  Hax  shall 
lie  not  quench.''  (The  Hebrews  employed  flax  for  their  lamp  wicks.) 
Dr.  Moore  tells  us  that  the  heroes  of  Homer  made  their  arrows  of  tlie 
Arundo  (Iliad  XI),  and  that  the  tent  of  Achilles  was  thatched  with  its 
leaves.  A  coarse  grass  {Spartium  junceum)  has  been  used  in  Italy  as  a 
fiber  plant  from  ancient  times,  its  Italian  name  being  Gincstra  de  Spar/na. 
It  is  mentioned  by  Pliny.  It  was  also  largely  used  by  the  Greeks  and 
Eomans  for  many  i)urposes.  Another  ancient  Egyptian  fiber  grass  is 
known  as  Teft'  (Port  abyssinica),  said  to  have  been  the  "straw"  tbat 
was  used  by  tbe  ancient  Egyptians  in  brlckmaking.  The  ancients 
were  also  familiar  with  the  use  of  flexible  twigs  for  tying  material,  the 
name  vihuru<(  being  used  for  such  substances.  Twigs  of  Viburnum 
cassinoides  are  used  for  such  purposes  in  the  present  age. 

In  the  Western  Hemisphere  the  fiber  of  two  species  at  least  of  Agave 
were  employed  by  the  ancient  3Iexicans  or  Aztecs,  together  with  ])alm 
fiber  and  very  coarse  cotton,  as  clotiiing  for  the  poorer  classes.  Cloth 
from  the  Agave  was  called  neqiten,  and  to  day  the  Yucatan  name  of  the 
commercial  sisal  hemp,  or  Ayave  rigida,  is  henequen.  This  may  have 
been  one  of  the  ancient  Mexican  species,  but  as  the  history  of  their  civ- 
ilization was  grotesquely  recorded  by.  the  use  of  ideographic  paintings, 
and  not  by  means  of  written  language  upon  books  or  scrolls,  such  fine 
distinctions  as  botanical  species  are  not  possible.  Agave  fiber  was  also 
used  to  a  limited  extent  by  the  ancient  Peruvians,  though  wool  and  cot- 
ton were  held  in  first  esteem.  In  the  burial  mounds  of  the  south- 
M^estern  United  States  the  remains  of  fibers  are  frequently  found.  Agave 
and  Yucca  fiber  being  common.  Pvcmains  of  bast  fibers  are  also  found, 
but  they  have  not  been  identified. 

The  subject  is  interesting,  but  it  is  not  possible,  on  these  pages,  to 
give  more  than  an  outline,  chiefly  for  the  pur])ose  of  showing  that  tbe 
most  valued  of  the  commercial  fibers  of  to  day  were  among  tbe  useful 
fiber  species  of  tbe  ancient  world. 


FIBERS    USED    COMMERCIALLY    IX    UNITED    STATES.  15 

PRINCIPAL    FIBERS    ISKD    COMMERCIALLY    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES, 

AND    THEIR    IMPORTS. 

Of  tlie  two  dozen  species  of  commercial  fibers  used  in  the  United 
States,  20  figure  in  tlie  list  of  imported  raw  products.  Taking  into 
account,  also,  the  imported  manufactures  from  librous  substances  and 
some  of  tlie  rougher  manufactures  from  libers  or  fibrous  substances 
produced  at  home,  the  complete  list  of  American  commercial  fibers 
uiay  be  swelled  to  30  species,  many  of  these  being  unimportant. 

There  are  six  bast  fibers,  as  follows:  Flax,  Liniim  usituthsiinumj 
China  grass,  Boehmeria  nivea  (including  Rhea,  B.  tenacissima) ;  hemp, 
Cioinabis  sativd ;  jute,  Corchoriis  cap.sularis  and  C.  olitoriKs;  Sunn 
liemp,  Crotalaria  jnnvea,  and  Cuba  bast,  Hihlticns  tiUaceu.s ;  all  except- 
ing the  last  beiug  spinning  fibers,  the  Cuba  bast  finding  employment 
in  millinery.  There  are  two  surface  fibers:  Cotton,  Gossi/i>i)tm  spp., 
and  liaftia,  BapJiia  ruffia.  The  list  of  structural  fibers  numbers  15,  rep- 
resenting Agaves,  palms,  ai.d  grasses,  as  follows:  Sisal  hemp,  Agace 
rigiiJa  (varieties);  Manila  hemp,  Musa  tcxtUis;  Mauritius,  Furcrwa 
gigantea,  and  Xew  Zealand  fiax,  Fhormium  tenax,  cordage  fibers;  Tam- 
pico,  or  Istle,  Agave  heteracantha ;  Bahia  piassaba,  Attalea  funifera; 
Para  piassaba,  Leopoldinia  piassaha;  Mexican  whisk,  or  Broom  root, 
Epicampex  macronra,  and  Cabbage  palmetto,  Sabal  palmetto,  brush 
fibers;  Crin  vegetal,  Chanuvrops  huniilis;  Spanish  moss,  Tillandsia 
Ksneoidcs;  Saw  palmetto,  Serenoa  scrmhUa ;  Cocoauut  fiber,  Cocos 
nucifera,  upholstery  and  matting  fibers;  Esparto  grass,  Sti2)a  tenacis- 
sima, for  paper  manufacture;  and  Vegetable  sponge,  Ltiffa  a'gyptica, 
as  substitute  for  bath  sponges.  The  two  species  of  i^almetto  and  the 
■Spanish  moss  for  vegetable  hair  are  wholly  produced  in  this  countrj^ 

xVs  to  the  sources  of  supply  of  these  fibers,  fiax  is  imported  chiefly 
from  Belgium,  Russia,  Holland,  Italy,  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland,  and  from  Canada.  China  grass  or  ramie  comes 
from  China  (in  very  small  quantities).  Hemp  is  derived  from  Russia, 
France,  Belgium,  Germany,  Austria-Hungary,  Italy,  the  ISTetherlauds, 
and  British  East  Indies  (the  latter  in  trifling  quantity);  jute  from 
India,  and  Cuba  bast  from  the  West  Indies.  The  imports  of  cotton 
are  chiefly  produced  in  Egypt  and  Peru,  though  small  quantities 
may  be  derived  from  other  countries.  Raffia,  used  as  agricultural  tie 
bands,  comes  from  Africa. 

The  sisal  hemp  supply  is  produced  in  Yucatan,  small  quantities  being 
produced  in  Cuba  and  the  Bahamas.  Manila  hemp  is  a  product  of  the 
Philippine  Islands,  cebu  hemp  being  a  trade  variety.  Mauritius  or  aloe 
fiber  comes  from  Africa,  and  the  source  of  supply  of  New  Zealand  flax 
is  indicated  by  its  name.  -Tampico,  or  Istle,  is  a  Mexican  product,  and 
the  Bahia  and  Para  piassabas,  or  "  bass ''  fibers,  are  collected  from  Bra- 
zilian palms.  There  are  other  species  of  bass  (see  Bass  in  catalogue) 
derived  from  African  palms,  which'  formerly  never  came  to  the  United 


16  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

States,  and  now,  if  at  all,  ouly  in  trifling-  quantities.  Broom  root  is  a 
Mexican  product,  the  root  of  a  tall,  wiry  grass.  The  two  palmetto 
fibers  are  produced  from  uncultivated  species  of  Florida  palms,  wliile 
the  Crin  vegetal  is  derivedfrom  an  allied  palm,  growing  in  Algeria.  The 
vegetable  hair  from  Spanish  moss  is  prepared  iu  South  Carolina  and 
other  Gulf  States,  while  cocoanut  fiber  comes  from  the  P:ast  Indies. 
Esparto  grass  is  produced  in  Algeria,  Spain,  and  Portugal,  and  vege- 
table sponge  comes  largely  from  Japan. 

Other  commercial  species  that  might  be  enumerated  are  imported  iu 
a  ])artinlly  prepared  state  or  as  manufactures.  Such  fibrous  substances 
appear  in  the  form  of  straw  plait  from  Italy,  Japan,  and  China,  chiefly, 
the  eastern  floor  mattings,  and  basketry  from  various  substances.  In 
this  account,  however,  ouly  the  raw  fibers  are  noted. 

The  fibers  produced  in  this  country  in  commercial  quantity  are  cot- 
ton, hemp,  flax,  palmetto  fiber,  and  vegetable  hair  from  Spanish  moss. 
Hemp  and  flax  production  should  be  largely  extended;  jute  produc- 
tion and  the  growth  of  sisal' hemp,  pineapple,  and  bowstring  hemp  are 
possible.  Cane  fiber  can  be  produced  in  large  quantities,  and  there 
are  doubtless  other  kinds  that  might  form  the  basis  of  local  liber 
industries. 

The  paper  materials  other  than  Esparto  are  not  considered  in  tliis 
category.  The  native  fibrous  substances  that  might  be  employed  in 
lieu  of  cellulose  from  our  forest  trees,  for  paper  pulp,  wonld  make  a  long 
list,  at  the  head  of  which  might  be  placed  the  waste  fiber  from  a  million 
acres  of  flax  produced  only  for  seed.  A  day  is  surely  coming  when  the 
question  of  securing  new  pulp  materials  will  present  itself,  and  it  is  to 
be  hoped  that  from  the  long  list  of  native  species  of  fibrous  plants 
enumerated  in  this  work  something  will  be  found  that  will  snp[)ly  at 
low  cost  a  better  paper  material  for  common  use  than  wood  puij), 
which  has  nothing  to  recommend  it  but  availability  of  raw  material 
and  cheapness. 

The  following  table  of  quantities  and  values  of  vegetable  libers 
imported  into  the  United  States  for  the  year  ended  June  30,  ISiU),  has 
been  made  up  from  figures  supplied  by  the  lUueau  of  Statistics  of  the 
Treasury  Department. 

Iinporif  of  vef/etable  fibers  iiiio  the  I'nited  Siuits  for  year  ending  June  ^Vt,  1S96. 


Fiber. 


Quantity.  Vah.e.  '^'"t"^^"^'' 


Tang.  Dollars.  Dollan. 

222  39, 884  l" 


Broom  root 

ChiBa  grass,  or  rninio  ' 

Cocoanut  fiber ' ' 

Cotton 27,075  i        6.578.212 

Crinv^getal '  1,318  I  213.818 

Cuba  bast ' , 

Esparto  grass ' 

Flax  straw 

Flax,  not  hackled 

Fiax,  dressed  line  ' 

Flax,  tow  of 

'  Included  in  all  other 


32  j                   fl26  28 

.^,  788  1  909, 6ri8  240 

1.322  I  6:«.  308  483 

1.711  261,082'!,  152 


ECONOMIC    INVESTIGATION. 


17 


Imports  of  vegetable  fibers  into  the  United  States,  etc — Continued. 


Fiber. 


Hemp,  not  hackled 

Hemp,  <lie8sed  line  ' 

Hemp,  tow  of 

Istle,  or  Tanipico  tiUer. 

Jute 

Jute  butts 

KittuT^ 


Tons. 

8,  ;J0G 

93 

244 

12,  205 

23,  :i93 

65, 599 


Dollars. 

1,  030,  547 

22,  847 

27,  205 

717,  585 

957,  054 

1,  044, 152 


Value  Iter 
ton. 


Dollars. 
124 
243 
111 

58 
40 
15 


.k'^ 


Manila  hemp 

Maiiritiua  liemp''. 
New  Zealand  flax. 
Palmyra  ■■' 


3,  594,  901 


5,548 


Piassaba  and  Ba.ss  fiber  ^ 

Kattau  and  Bamboo^ 

Sisal  grass 

Vegetable  sponge  '^ 

All  other,  and  waste 


20,  616 


3,  372, 346 


183,  768 


Total. 


221,495  I       19,604,961 


'  Flax,  dressed  line,  is  dutiable  at  $;!3.G0  per  ton  ;  dressed  line  of  hemp  at  $22.40  per  ton ;  all  others, 
free. 
■^  Included  in  all  other. 

The  $19,000,000  to  $20,000,000  represented  by  the  imports  of  raw 
fibers,  in  the  above  table,  must  not  be  taken  as  the  vahie  of  tlie  fiber 
industry  to  this  country.  It  should  be  remembered  that  considerably 
larger  quantities  of  many  of  these  fibers  are  manufactured  in  other 
countries  for  export  to  the  Cnited  States,  and  that  the  total  value  of 
our  imports  of  "raw  and  manufactured"'  is  ec^ual  to  three  or  four  times 
the  value  represented  in  the  table.  Our  raw  and  dressed  flax  imports 
amount  to  perhaps  $1,750,000,  Avhile  the  imports  of  flax  manufactures 
have  reached  $12,000,000.  Even  Mexican  manufactures  from  sisal 
grass,  such  as  hammocks,  etc.,  are  sold  in  the  United  States,  and  the 
imports  of  cordage  and  yarns  from  various  fibers  is  considerable. 
Where  $20,000,000  worth  of  fibers  are  now  manufactured  in  this  coun- 
try it  might  be  possible  to  manufacture  $40,000,000  worth,  and  thus 
double  the  home  fiber  industries;  and  it  might  easily  be  possible  to 
produce  home-grown  fibers  to  the  extent  of  half  of  the  suppjy  needed 
in  the  manufactures  that  these  industries  represent. 


ECONOMIC    INVESTIGATION. 

While  30  of  40  species  of  plants  supply  the  world's  demand  for  com- 
mercial fibers,  hundreds  of  fibrous  plants  could  readily  be  enumerated, 
the  simple  fiber  substance  in  many  of  which  to  outward  appearance  is 
just  as  good  as  the  fiber  of  some  of  the  commercial  species  widely  cul- 
tivated, and  for  which  they  would  be  the  substitutes.  This  country 
imports  millions  of  dollars'  worth  of  jute  annually,  yet  some  of  the  plants 
recognized  as  native  weeds  in  the  United  States  contain  stronger  and 
better  fiber.  That  many  of  them  are  capable  of  producing  a,  good 
quality  of  fiber  has  been  known  for  years,  yet  they  are  not  utilized. 
But  they  are  interesting  and  are  the  subject  of  constant  inquiry,  as  tlie 
masses  of  their  filaments,  disintegrated  and  semibleached  on  the  parent 
12247— No.  9 2 


18  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

stalk  by  the  winter  storms,  attract  atteiitiou;  aud  ofteu  the  observer, 
regarding  bis  discover^^  as  new  and  considering  it  the  source  of  a  vaiu- 
able,  undeveloped  industry,  writes  to  learn  the  name  and  history  of  the 
species,  how  far  the  plant  is  susceptible  of  cultivation,  and  what  price 
the  fiber  will  bring  in  the  market.  In  consideriog  such  a  plant  the  first 
question  is  not,  can  we  grow  the  species,  but  what  will  be  its  uses  in  man- 
ufacture, or,  in  other  words,  what  commercial  fiber  will  it  either  replace 
or  become  a  substitute  for.  In  most  instances  the  inquiry  need  not  be 
carried  further,  for  the  i)resent  commercial  fibers  represent  in  a  sense 
those  that  have  stood  the  test  of  experience,  and  until  these  are  crowded 
out  by  new  conditions,  or  through  what  might  be  termed  evolution  in 
the  economic  arts,  they  will  have  no  chance.  The  only  opportunity 
that  may  be  alibrded  these  secondary  forms  is  in  the  creation  of  special 
uses  to  which  they  may  be  peculiarly  adapted,  for  which  the  standard 
forms  known  to  the  market  price  current  are  not  so  well  fitted. 

Should  a  fiber  be  considered  "promising,''  it  would  need  to  l)e  sub- 
jected to  chemical  and  microscopic  study  to  determine  the  length  of  the 
ultimate  fiber  cell,  the  proportion  of  cellulose,  and  any  other  elements 
which  would  give  it  its  rating  among  textiles.  By  such  technical  study 
we  are  enabled  to  obtain  direct  knowledge  of  the  species  and  in  a 
measure  to  avoid  long  and  costly  economic  experimentation. 

Experiments  for  the  development  or  extension  of  vegetable  fiber 
industries  under  governmental  auspices  or  direction  have  been  insti- 
tuted at  difierent  times  in  many  countries,  and  such  experiments  date 
back  nearly  one  hundred  years.  In  some  instances  these  have  been 
confined  to  testing  the  strengths  of  native  fibrous  substances  for  com- 
I)arison  with  similar  tests  of  commercial  fibers,  as  the  almost  exhaust- 
ive experiments  of  Roxburgh  in  India  early  in  the  present  century. 
Another  direction  for  Government  experimentation  has  been  the  testing 
of  maclnnes  to  supersede  costly  hand  labor  in  the  preparation  of  the  raw 
material  for  market,  or  in  the  development  of  chemical  processes  for 
the  further  preparation  of  the  fibers  for  manufacture,  or  in  microscopic 
and  chemical  investigation.  The  broadest  field  of  experiment,  however, 
has  been  the  cultivation  of  the  plants,  either  to  introduce  new  indus- 
tries as  sources  of  national  wealth  or  to  economically  develop  those 
which  require  to  be  fostered.  The  introduction  of  ramie  culture  is  an 
example  of  the  first  instance,  the  fostering  of  the  almost  extinct  fiax 
industry  of  our  grandfathers'  days  an  illustration  of  the  second. 

The  United  States  Government  has  conducted  experiments  or  insti- 
tuted inquiries  in  the  fiber  interest  at  various  times  in  the  last  fifty 
years,  but  it  is  only  since  18^0  that  an  office  of  practical  experiment 
and  inquiry  has  been  established  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture, 
that  has  been  continued  through  a  term  of  years.  This  is  known  as 
the  Office  of  Fiber  Investigations. 

The  work  of  this  branch  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  has  been 
mainly  directed  toward  the  development  or  introduction  of  those  fibers 


CHEMICAL    INVESTIGATION.  19 

nhich  we  do  not  produce  cominercially,  but  which  are  ca])able  of 
cultivation  in  tlie  United  States,  and  whicli  will  add  to  our  national 
resources.  This  work  has  been  prosecuted  by  the  importation  and 
distribution  of  the  seeds  of  fiber  jdants,  by  encouraging  and  directing 
field  experiments,  by  testing  fiber  machines,  and  by  affording  informa- 
tion, both  through  personal  correspondence  and  through  a  series  of 
publications.^ 

flHEMU'AL   INVESTKi^ATION. 

_n  presentnig  this  phase  of  the  study  of  fibers  I  can  but  refer  to  the 
valuable  work  that  has  been  accomplished  iu  England  in  the  field  of 
chemical  research  by  Messrs.  Cross,  Bevan,  and  King,  and  1  Avill 
refer  particularly  to  the  Keport  on  Indian  Fibers-  and  the  work  on  Cel- 
lulose,^ the  latter  being  a  recent  publication.  The  methods  adopted 
in  the  chemical  stud}'  of  fibers  and  the  processes  essential  to  proper 
determinations  are  as  follows: 

Moisture. — All  the  celluloses  hold  in  their  ordinary  state  a  certain 
proportion  of  moisture,  which,  within  the  limits  of  variation  (one-half 
of  1  i^er  cent)  due  to  atmospheric  changes,  is  definite  and  characteristic 
of  each  fiber.  It  is  noteworthy  that  the  pro])ortion  of  hygroscopic 
moisture  is  an  index  of  susceptibility  of  attack  by  hydrolytic  agents; 
it  is  certainly  true  that  the  textile  fibers  of  the  highest  class  are  dis- 
tinguished by  their  relatively  low  moisture.  It  is  scarce!}'  necessary  to 
say  that  the  moisture  is  determined  by  drying  a  weighed  quantity  of 
the  fiber.  It  is  necessary  to  raise  the  temperature  to  110^  to  drive  off 
the  whole  of  the  water;  at  100'^  a  fiber  will  often  retain  1  percent  of  its 
weight.  Owing  to  the  variations  in  this  constituent,  it  is  exi^edient  to 
express  all  the  results  of  analysis  as  percentages  of  the  d)y  fiber. 

Mineral  eoustitnents. — The  ash  left  on  incinerating  the  fiber  :s  deter- 
mined iu  the  usual  way.  The  proportion  is  low  hi  the  ligno-celluloses, 
higher  in  the  pecto-celluloses,  especially  when  the  proportion  of  non- 
cellulose  is  high.     Cellular  tissue  further  contains  a  higher  proportion 

'The  special  reports  issued  previous  to  this  work  are: 

1.  A  Keport  on  Flax,  Hemp,  Kamie,  and  Jute,  Illust.,  pp.  104,  1890. 

2.  Kecent  Progress  iu  the  Ramie  Industry  in  America,  i)p.  1(5,  1891. 

3.  A  Keport  on  Sisal  Hemii  Culture  iu  the  United  States,  pp.  59,  IHust.,  1891. 

4.  A  Report  on  Flax  Culture  for  Fiber  in  tlie  United  States  (and  Europe),  pp.  93, 
Ilhist.,  1892. 

5.  A  Report  on  the  Leaf  Fiheis  of  the  I'nited  States.  ]>p.  73,  Illust.,  1893. 

6.  A  Report  on  the  Uncultivated  Rast  Fibers  in  the  United  States,  pji.  54,  Illust., 
1894. 

7.  A  Report  on  the  Cultivation  of  Ramie  in  the  United  States,  i)p.  (iS,  Illust.,  1895. 

8.  A  Report  on  the  Culture  of  Heni])  aud  .Jute  in  tlie  United  States,  pp.  43,  Illust., 
1896. 

Five  Annual  Reports  have  been  issued,  which  will  be  found  in  the  Yearbook,  or 
Annual  Reports  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  1890  to  1895;  also  Farmers'  Bulle- 
tin No.  27,  Flax  for  Seed  aud  Fiber,  i)p.  Ki,  1895. 

-See  Cross,  Bevan,  and  King,  list  of  authorities. 

^See  Crossand.  Bevan. 


20  USEFUL  FIBER  PLANTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 

of  mineral  coustituents  than  the  fibers,  and  an  admixture  of  the  former 
therefore  raises  the  jiereentage. 

Hydrolysis. — Tliere  are  two  classes  of  reagents  whicli  intensify  that 
resolving  action  of  water  upon  organic  bodies  known  as  hydrolysis; 
they  are  the  acids  and  alkalis.  The  destructive  action  of  acids  has  not 
been  included  in  the  scheme  of  analysis.  The  action  of  boiling  dilute 
alkalis,  however,  eftecting  a  simpler  resolution  and  involving  very 
important  points  in  the  practical  applications  of  the  fibers,  gives  results 
which  form  a  necessary  part  of  their  diagnosis. 

Example  of  treatment:  The  fiber  is  boiled  i<i)  for  five  minutes  in  a 
solution  of  caustic  soda  (1  per  cent  Na20),  washed,  dried,  and  weighed — 
the  loss  of  weight  presents  the  i)roportion  of  the  fiber  wiiich  yiehls  to 
the  solvent  action  of  the  alkali;  {b)  in  a  second  portion  the  boiling  is 
continued  for  one  liour — the  loss  of  weight  is  an  indication  of  the 
"degrading"  action  of  the  alkali.  In  many  of  the  pecto-celluloses  the 
hydrolytic  action  of  the  prolonged  boiling  is  such  that  the  noncellulose 
is  almost  completely  dissolved  away.  The  power  of  resistance  of  a 
fiber  to  the  action  of  bleaching  p:ocesses,  as  well  as  the  resisting  of 
'•wear"  of  the  manufactured  fabric  in  subsecjuent  washings  (launder- 
ing), where  strong  alkaline  soaps  or  even  chemicals  are  used,  is  shown. 

CeUulose. — Celluloses,  although  similar  in  external  characteristics, 
are  of  widely  different  chemical  constitution,  and  vary  considerably  in 
their  power  of  resisting  the  further  action  of  oxidizing  and  hydrolytic 
action.  A  determination  of  the  value  aiul  composition  of  cellulose  is 
made  as  follows:  A  fresh  specimen  having  been  boiled  in  the  dilute 
alkali  (1  per  cent  ]S'a20),  is  well  "washed  and  exposed  for  one  hour,  at 
the  ordinary  temperature,  to  an  atmosphere  of  chlorine  gas.  It  is  then 
removed,  washed,  and  treated  with  a  solution  of  sodium  sulphite, 
which  is  slowly  raised  to  the  boiling  point.  After  two  or  three  min- 
utes' boiling,  it  is  washed,  on  a  filter  when  necessary,  though  in  most 
cases  it  may  be  so  placed  in  a  funnel  as  to  act  as  its  own  filter.  Lastly, 
it  is  treated  with  dilute  acetic  acid,  washed,  dried,  and  weighed.  The 
percentage  yield  on  the  raw  fiber  is  the  most  important  criterion  of 
its  composition  and  value. 

Mercerizing. — This  refers  to  the  action  of  concentrated  solutions  of 
the  alkalis  upon  vegetable  fibers,  particularly  the  compound  fibers  or 
those  which  are  made  up  of  a  number  of  fibrils  aggregated  into  a  bun- 
dle, the  larger  portion  of  fiber  consisting  of  such  bundles.  "  The  action 
of  the  alkali  often  causes  a  very  profound  change  in  structure,  not 
only  dissecting  the  bundles,  but  altering  the  contour  of  the  fibrils. 
The  treatment  takes  its  name  froiu  Mercer,  v»'hose  original  studies  were 
for  the  determination  of  the  structural  modification  which  cotton  under- 
goes when  treated  with  strong  alkalis. 

Niira1ion.—\\\\e\i  a  fiber  is  exposed  for  one  hour  to  a  nitrating  acid, 
such  as  a  mixture  of  equal  volumes  of  concentrated  nitric  and  sul- 
phuric acids,  one  of  the  most  important  results  which  follow  is  an 


CHEMICAL    INVESTIGATION. 


21 


increase  in  weiglit.  An  external  cliaracteiistic  Avhicli  should  also  be 
noted  is  color.  A  great  deal  of  information  regarding  the  constitution 
of  a  fiber  is  ascertained  by  this  process. 

Carbon penrnfaf/es  from  comhustiou. — This  process  consists  in  burn- 
ing" the  substance  Avith  chromic  anhydride  in  presence  of  sulphuric 
acid  and  leading  over  the  gaseous  products  (CO  and  CO2)  into  an  appa- 
ratus in  which  their  volume  can  be  exactly  measured.  The  two  oxides 
of  carbon  having  tlie  same  volume,  the  quantity  of  carbon  in  unit 
volume  is  independent  of  the  composition  of  the  gas,  which  therefore 
only  reipiires  to  be  measured.  The  carbon  in  the  typical  (cotton)  cellu- 
lose is  44.4  per  cent;  the  compound  celluloses;  on  the  other  hand,  range 
themselves  for  the  n^.ost  part  into  two  groups — (1)  of  lower  carbon  per- 
centage (40-43),  (2)  of  higher  (45-50),  in  the  former  the  pecto-celluloses 
are  included,  the  ligno-cclluloses  in  the  latter.  This  is  considered  a 
prominent  chemical  constant  of  the  fiber  substance. 

Acid imrijieation. — The  object  of  this  treatment  is  to  clean  the  fiber 
and  remove  accidental  ijnpurities,  Avhile  occasioning  the  minimum  loss 
of  weight  and  therefore  alteration  in  conij^osition.  For  this  purpose 
acetic  acid  (20  per  cent)  is  chosen,  the  fiber  being  heated  with  the  acid 
to  the  boiling  point,  then  removed  and  washed  first  with  alcohol  and 
lastly  with  water,  dried,  and  weighed.  The  loss  in  weight  sustained  is 
thus  determined.  It  is  in  the  fiber  thus  purified  that  the  carbon  per- 
centages are  determined. 

In  a  report  on  the  miscellaneous  fibers  in  the  Colonial  and  London 
Exhibition  of  1886,  by  C.  F.  Cross,  the  scheme  of  analysis  is  thus 
briefly  stated  in  tabular  form: 

Moisture Hygroscopic  water,  or  water  of  condition. 

Ash Total  residue  left  on  ignition. 

Hydrolysis  (a) Loss  of  weight  ou  boiling  raw  liber  five 

minutes  in  1  per  cent  solution  of  caustic 
soda. 

Hydrolysis  (t) Loss  of  weight  ou  continuing  to  boil  one 

hour. 

Cellulose. Whit(^  or  bleached  residue  from  following 

treatment:  (1)  ]?oil  in  1  per  cent  NaOH 
five  minutes;  (2)  exposure  to  chlorine  gas 
one  hour;  (3)  boil  in  basic  sodium  sul- 
phite. 

Mercerizing Loss  on  treating  one  hour  with  33  per  cent 

solution  caustic  potash,  cold. 

Nitration Weight  of  nitrated   product  obtained  by 

treatment  with  mixture  equal  volumes 
of  nitric  and  sulphuric  acids  one  hoar,  in 
the  cold. 

Acid  purification  ..  .Raw  liber  boiled  one  minute  with  acetic 
acid  {'20  per  cent),  washed  with  water  and 
alcohol,  and  dried. 

Carbon  ])ercentage.  .The  carbon  in  the  fiber  from  al)ove,  deter- 
mined by  combustion. 


Separate  portion 
taken  for  each 
determimation. 
Results  calcu- 
lated in  percent- 
age of  dry  sub- 
stance. 


22  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

THE   MICRO-CHEMICAL    STUDY    OF   FIBERS, 

The  iui(;roscope  is  a  valuable  adjuuct  to  tlie  study  of  fibers,  uot  only 
for  tlie  purpose  of  deterraiuiug  tlie  dimensions  of  the  ultimate  cell,  the 
thickness  of  the  cell  walls,  the  arrangement  of  the  different  kinds  of 
cells  in  the  plant  tissue,  and  the  relative  abundance  of  the  fiber  cells, 
but  all  these  taken  together,  with  the  employment  also  of  certain  chem- 
ical reagents,  giving  a  ready  means  of  determining  the  identity  of  the 
species  of  fiber  where  doubt  exists  as  to  the  kind  of  fiber  that  has  been 
employed  in  the  particular  manufacture  under  investigation.  The 
methods  to  be  pursued  in  this  kind  of  fiker  analysis  should  be  fully 
understood  by  the  textile  student,  as  well  as  the  industrialist  and  all 
others  who  handle  fibers  and  fabrics  commercially. 

Among  the  text-books  that  may  be  consulted  no  better  can  be  sug- 
gested than  the  valuable  work  of  M.  Vctillart,  of  Paris,  who  has  given 
many  years  of  study  to  the  subject.  As  the  publication  is  in  French,  it 
is  not  readily  available  to  f^nglish  students.  An  abstract  of  the  meth- 
ods pursued  by  M,  Yetillart  appears,  however,  in  Appendix  B  in  the 
valuable  paper  "On  the  identification  of  fibers,"  which  has  been  spe- 
cially prepared  for  this  work  by  Prof.  William  H.  Seaman. 

The  identification  of  fibers  involves  both  chemical  and  microscopic 
study,  in  many  instances  microscopic  determination  only  being  possible 
with  the  employment  of  the  resources  of  the  chemist,  and  the  use  of 
both  systems,  therefore,  is  essential.  As  the  work  of  Professor  Seaman 
covers  the  ground  most  thoroughly,  a  further  consideration  of  the  sub- 
ject here  is  unnecessary. 

THE    CLASSIFICATION    OF    FIBERS,    BASED    ON    USES    AND    STRUCTURE. 

Among  the  many  wants  of  man  tnere  are  two  which  in  all  ages  and 
in  every  clime  have  been  regarded  as  necessities — food  and  the  cover- 
ing of  the  body.  The  first  is  an  absolute  essential  to  life;  the  second, 
an  adjunct  either  to  comfort  or  appearance.  In  supplying  the  second 
necessity  man  has  lused  the  bark,  stems,  leaves,  and  roots  of  trees, 
shrubs,  vines,  grasses,  and  the  fibrous  growth  often  provided  by 
nature  to  i^rotect  their  fruits  during  the  period  of  development;  he  has 
employed  the  skins  of  animals,  their  shorn  hair  or  wool,  and,  lastly, 
the  cocoons  of  the  silkworm. 

At  first  vegetable  substances  could  scarcely  have  been  employed,  for 
primitive  man  was  satisfied  with  the  skin  of  an  aninial  girded  about  his 
loins;  but  in  time,  with  the  dawn  of  creative  intelligence,  the  filaments 
of  bark  and  wool  and  hair  were  rudely  twisted  into  threads  and 
coarsely  woven.  These  fibers  twisted  again  into  larger  threads,  as  fish 
Hues,  when  knotted  together  formed  fish  nets,  with  which  he  was 
enabled  to  secure  food,  or  a  number  of  these  threads  wrought  together 
made  him  cordage.  His  wants  increasing  as  his  inventive  faculties 
were  more  and  more  developed  and  he  became  more  intelligent,  he  felt 


STRUCTURAL    CLASSIFICATION.  '^6 

the  need  of  various  utensils  in  the  domestic  ecouoniy,  aud  pottery, 
trays,  aud  baskets  were  fasliioued  from  clay,  from  twigs  of  bushes  or 
trees,  from  rushes  and  the  leaves  of  palms  and  similar  plants.  Aud 
when  caves  or  overhanging  cliffs  and  rock  shelters  ceased  to  be  his 
protection  from  the  elements  he  learned  to  build  huts  and  to  thatch 
them  with  palms  and  grasses.  Having  now  entered  upon  a  domiciliary 
existence  and  new  wants  being  created,  mats  and  screens  were  woven 
from  reeds  and  sedges  or  from  strips  of  palm,  and  primitive  man  had 
entered  upon  a  kind  of  barbaric  civilization. 

Aboriginal  mau  is  primitive  in  all  ages,  and  the  age  of  his  particular 
race  and  his  environment  fixes  the  scale  of  his  civilization.  If,  in  the 
early  Stone  Age,  he  threw  across  his  shoulders  or  girded  about  his 
loins  the  skin  of  an  animal  slaughtered  for  food,  it  was  because  such 
rude  dress  satisfied  his  simple  wants  in  this  direction.  And  there  are 
native  tribes  in  Africa  and  Australia  at  the  present  time  with  no 
higher  desires  as  to  their  raiment  aud  who  still  dress  in  skins,  aud 
African  tribes  who  still  adliere  to  Adam's  costume — not  fig  leaves,  but 
a  girdle  of  evergreens  and  creepers  or  a  leafy  branch,  as  in  the  Obbo 
tribe. 

But  the  economic  uses  of  plants  were  bnuud  to  be  learned  by  savage 
mau  in  time,  and  skill  was  early  acquired  in  preparing  them  for  use. 
We  find,  therefore,  among  the  uncivilized  races  all  over  the  world  that 
many  species  of  fiber  idants  have  become  most  useful  for  utensils, 
cords,  and  clothing  which  civilized  man  with  all  his  intelligence  and 
inventive  genius  can  not  afford  to  employ  commercially.  It  is  true 
that  the  recognized  commercial  fibers  represent  those  best  adapted  for 
use,  and  that  many  of  them,  like  flax,  hemp,  and  cotton,  must  be 
classed  with  the  fibers  of  antiquity.  They  have  established  their 
places  because  they  have  been  j)roved  to  be  the  best  for  the  purposes 
for  which  they  are  employed,  and  the  others  can  only  be  considered  as 
their  substitutes  or  as  simple  "  native"  fibers.  We  have  therefore  two 
natural  groups  of  fibers — 'the  commercial  species  with  their  substi- 
tutes, which  are  soon  enumerated,  and  the  vast  group  of  the  so-called 
native  fibers,  many  of  which  might  fitly  be  termed  emergency  fibers, 
because  they  are  extracted  and  used  at  the  moment  when  needed. 
These  so-called  native  fibers  are  all  interesting,  however,  and  through 
our  knowledge  of  some  of  them,  or  when  a  species  finds  its  way  to  the 
outside  world,  a  new  commercial  fiber  now  and  then  is  brought  to 
light.  They  are  legion  when  taken  collectively,  and  therefore  in 
enumerating  the  many  species  found  in  the  countries  of  the  globe  it  is 
very  easy  to  secure  a  list  that  can  only  be  stated  in  four  figures. 

STRUCTURAL   CLASSIFrCATIOX. 

We  have  seen  that  different  forms  of  cellular  structure  compose  the 
fibers  derived  from  dicotyledonous  and  monocotyledouous  plants,  as 


24  USEFUL   FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

well  as  the  seed  hairs,  or  other  hairs,  from  certaiu  species  of  both  divi- 
sions of  the  vegetable  kingdom.  In  general  terms,  therefore,  fiber  is 
composed  of  bundles  of  bast  or  fibro-vascular  tissue  in  the  form  of  long, 
flexible  filaments,  such  as  flax,  hemp,  or  manila,  or  of  hairs,  such  as 
cotton,  capable  of  being  twisted  or  spun  into  threads  or  yarns,  to  be 
subsequently  manufactured  into  cordage  or  fabrics. 

In  the  economic  emi)loynieiit  of  fibrous  vegetable  material  it  is  often 
the  case  that  the  fiber  bundles  .are  not  separated  or  subdivided  into 
such  delicate  filaments  as  compose  the  cleaned  fibers  of  flax  and  hemp, 
but  are  used  in  a  conglomerated  mass,  or  even  in  a  more  primary  form, 
as  the  whole  stems  of  reeds  or  grasses,  as  in  matting  manufacture, 
where  both  fibrous  substance  and  the  cellular  tissue  and  woody  waste 
is  used  without  further  preparation  than  drying.  Or,  a  still  broader 
differentiation  is  found  in  the  einployment  of  palm  leaves  torn  into 
strips  or  the  woody  stems  of  sucli  plants  as  tlie  willow  and  sumac, 
which  are  coarsely  woven  or  plaited  into  baskets  and  similar  objects. 

These  fibrous  substances,  however,  are  not  always  utilized  by  sub- 
jecting them  to  the  operations  of  twisting,  spinning,  ])laiting,  or  weav 
ing,  but  are  employed  in  a  mass,  as  upholstery  material  for  the  stuffing 
of  cushions,  mattresses,  and  the  like.  Beginning  with  true  fibrous  ma- 
terial, such  as  tow  or  the  waste  from  scutching  flax,  hemj),  etc.,  and 
the  seed  hairs  of  the  many  plants  known  as  cotton  and  silk  cotton, 
and  coming  down  through  the  list  we  discover  the  use  of  mosses, 
leaves,  and  even  finely  subdivided  wood  shavings,  or  '' excelsior,"  as 
forms  of  stuffing  or  packing  material.  The  last  named  are  not  fiber, 
though  on  account  of  their  economic  employment  they  are  regarded  as 
the  substitutes  of  fibrous  substances. 

Therefore,  in  considering  the  many  species  of  plants  which  are  em- 
ployed for  so  many  different  uses  in  the  industrial  economy,  one  species 
ofttimes  being  utilized  as  a  cheaper  substitute  for  another,  in  order  to 
show  their  relations,  both  botanically  and  economically,  a  division  into 
classes  is  necessary,  that  the  place  and  value  of  each  form  of  fiber  may 
be  readily  recognized.  Several  classifications  will  be  found  in  the 
works  relating  to  this  subject,  but  after  reviewing  the  1,000  or  more 
species  of  vegetable  fibers  and  fibrous  substances  comprised  in  this 
catalogue  a  new  scheme  of  classification,  considered  chiefly  from  the 
economic  standpoint,  has  been  devised,  and  is  presented  as  both 
simple  and  natural. 

In  this  arrangement  I  have  separated  the  fibrous  substances  derived 
from  plants  into  five  groups,  according  to  their  use  in  the  plant  econ- 
ony,  as  well  as  in  relation  to  part  of  the  plant  employed.  The  first 
and  third  groups  follow  the  natural  division  of  the  two  great  vegetable 
kingdoms  into  exogenous  and  endogenous  plants;  the  second  group 
confined  wholly  to  the  first  division,  but  only  fibrous  in  a  sense;  the 
fourth  group  pertaining  to  both,  but  more  largely  confined  to  the  first 
division,  while  the  fifth  group  is  comprised  of  low  orders  of  jdants 


STRUCTURAL    CLASSIFICATION.  25 

that  are  not  fibrous  at  all,  but  which  are  ehietly  used  as  clieap  substi- 
tutes of  better  packing-  materials.     The  classiticatiou  is  as  follows: 

A.  FlBKO-VASCl'LAR   STKUCTURE. 

1.  Bast  fibers. 

Derived  from  the  inner  fibrous  harlv  of  dicotyledonous  plants  or  exogens, 
or  outside  growers.  They  fire  composed  of  bast  cells,  the  ends  of 
which  overlap  each  other  so  as  to  form  in  mass  a  filament.  Tliey 
occupy  the  phloem  portion  of  the  fibro-vascular  bundles,  and  their 
utility  in  nature  is  to  give  strength  and  flexibility  to  the  tissue. 

2.  Woody  fibers. 

(fl)  The  stems  and  twigs  of  exogenous  plants,  simply  stripped  of  their 
bark  and  used  entire,  or  separated  into  withes,  for  weaving  or 
plaiting  into  basketry. 

(b)  The  entire  or  subdivided  roots  of  exogenous  plants,  to  be  employed 

for  the  same  purjiose,  or  as  tie  material,  or  as  very  coarse  thread 
for  stitching  or  binding. 

(c)  The  wood  of  exogenous  trees  easily  divisible  into  layers  or  splints 

for  the  same  purposes,  or  more  finely  subdivided  into  threadlike 
shavings  for  packing  material. 

(d)  The  wood  of  certain  soft  species  of  exogenous  trees,  after  grinding 

and  converting  by  chemical  means  into  wood  pulp,  which  is  sim- 
ple cellulose,  and  similar  woods  more  carefully  prepared  for  the 
manufacture  of  artificial  silk. 

3.  Structural  fibers. 

(rt)  Derived  from  the  structural  system  of  the  stalks,  leaf  stems,  and 
leaves,  or  other  parts  of  monocotyledonous  plants,  or  inside  grow- 
ers, occurring  as  isolated  fibro-vascular  bundles,  and  surrounded 
by  a  pithy,  spongy,  corky,  or  often  a  soft,  succulent,  cellular 
mass  covered  with  a  thick  epidermis.  They  give  to  the  plant 
rigidity  and  toughness,  thus  enabling  it  to  resist  injury  from  the 
elements,  and  they  also  serve  as  water  vessels. 

(b)  The  whole  stems,  or  roots,  or  leaves,  or  split  and  shredded  ]ea\es  of 

monocotyledonous  plants. 

(c)  The    fibrous  portion  of  the  leaves  or  fruits  of  certain   exogenous 

plants  when  deprived  of  their  epidermis  and  soft  cellular  tissue. 

B.  Simple  cellular  stkucture. 

4.  Surface  fibers. 

(a)  Thedowu  orhairs  surrounding  theseeds,  or  seed  envelopes,  of  exogen- 
ous plants,  which  are  usually  contained  in  a  husk,  pod',  or  capsule. 

(6)  Hairlike  growths,  or  tomentum.  found  on  the  surfaces  of  the  stems 
and  leaves  or  on  the  leaf  buds  of  both  divisions  of  plants. 

(c)  Fibrous  material  produced  in  the  form  of  epidermal  strips  from  the 
leaves  of  certain  endogenous  species,  as  the  palms. 

5.  Pseudo-fibers,  or  false  fibroux  material. 

(a)  Certain  of  the   mosses,  as  the   species  of  Sphagnum,  for   packing 

material. 

(b)  Certain  leaves  and  marine  weeds,  the  dried  substance  of  which  forms 

a  more  delicate  packing  material. 

(c)  Seaweeds  wrought  into  lines  or  cordage. 

(d)  Fungous  growths,  or  the  mycelium  of  certain  fungi  that  may  be 

applied  to  economic  uses,  for  wliich  some  of  the  true  fibers  are 
employed. 

The  bast  libers,  derived  from  the  bark  of  exogenous  plants,  such  as 
trees,  shrubs,  the  climbing  vines,  herbaceous  vegetation  generally,  are 


26 


USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


clearly  defined,  and  the  fibers  of  all  species  of  such  plants,  wlieii  simply 
stripped,  are  similar  in  form  as  to  outward  appearance,  differing'  cliiefiy 
in  color,  fineness,  and  strength.  An  example  of  a  fine  bast  fiber  is  the 
ribbons  or  filaments  of  hemp,  and  of  a  coarser  form,  the  bast  from  the 
linden  or  the  cedar.  In  fig.  3  are  shown  highly  magnified  filaments  of 
fiax.  A  variation  in  form  should  be  noted  in  the  lace  barks  and  the 
paper  barks,  where  the  bundles  of  fibers  which  interlace  may  be  i)eeled 
off  in  the  form  of  thin,  fiat  strips.  Tlie  woody  fibers  are  only  fibrous 
in  a  broad  sense,  as  their  cellulose  is  broken  down  and  all  extraneous 
matter  removed  by  chemical  means,  as  for  the  manufacture  of  pai^er 
pulp  or  of  artificial  silk.  The  greater  number  are  merely  wood  in 
the  form  of  flexible  slender  twigs  or  osiers  that  are  useful  for  making 
baskets;  or  the  larger  branches  maybe  split  or  subdivided  into  strips, 
withes,  or  flat  ribbons  of  wood,  for  making  coarser  baskets.     The  softer 


vf 


Fig.  3. — Flax  fibers:  n.  a',  transverse  sections  of  fibers;  6,  fibers  viewed  in   It-iigtli ;  r,  points  or  ciuls 
i)f  fibers.     Example  of  a  bast  fiber. 

woods  still  further  subdivided  give  the  i>r()duct  known  as  excelsior, 
which  can  only  claim  a  ])Iace  in  a  list  of  filler  ]>lants  because  it  is  a 
substitute  for  upholsterj-  or  packing  material. 

Structural  fibers  are  found  in  many  forms,,  some  of  which  may  be 
enumerated  as  follows:  The  stiff,  white,  or  yellowish  fibers  forming  the 
structure  of  all  fleshy-leaved  or  aloe-like  plants,  as  the  century  plant, 
the  Yuccas,  Agave,  and  pineapple,  or  the  fleshy  trunk  of  the  banana; 
as  an  example,  sisal  hemp  of  commerce;  the  coarser  bundles  of  stiff, 
fibrous  substance  which  gives  strength  to  the  trunks,  leaf,  stems  (mid- 
ribs and  veins),  and  even  the  leaves  of  i)alms,  a  good  example  being 
Piassaba,  derived  from  the  dilated  margins  of  the  petioles  of  a  i)alm, 
where  they  clasp  the  stem;  these  are  made  into  thin  strips  which 
afterwards  split  into  smooth,  cylindrical  fibers.  Another  example  is 
the  stifl"  fibers  extracted  by  maceration  from  the  ''boots"  or  bases  of 
the  leaf  stems  of  the  cabbage  palmetto,  or  the  shredded  leaves  of  the 
African  fan  palm,  known  as  Crin  vegetal.  Other  familiar  examples  may 
be  noted  in  strips  of  rattan,  the  fibrous  material  derived  from  bamboo, 


ECUNOMin    CLASSIFICATION. 


27 


from  the  cornstalk,  the  flower  stems  of  broom  eorn,  and  from  reeds, 
sedges,  and  tlie  true  grasses.  Still  anotlicr  form  is  the  tibrous  mass 
surrounding  the  fruit  of  tlie  coaeoanut,  known  as  eoir,  and  as  a  curious 
example  may  be  noted  the  fiber  from  pine  needles;  it  notable  excep- 
tion of  a  structural  fiber  derived  from  an  exogenous  plant,  the  fibrous 
mass  filling  the  sponge  cucumber  being  another. 

The  surface  fibers  are  still  more  varied  in  form.  They  may  be  the 
elongated  hairs  surrounding  the  individual  pods  which  contain  the 
single  seeds  of  the  thistle,  familiarly  known  as  thistledown,  or  they 
may  be  the  hairy  growths  covering  the  clusters  of  seeds  contained 
within  largo  pods,  as  the  cotton  boll,  the  pod  of  the  milkweed,  or  the 
seed  envelop  of  species  of  Bombax  found  in  tropical  countries.  See 
tig.  4,  a  highly  magnified   example  of  the  fiber  of  cotton.     In  this 


Fig.  i. — Cotton  tibers:  a.  half  ripe  tibers  of  cotton,  trauaverso  section; 
h,  mature  fibers;  c,  lialf  ripe  fibers  with  thin  cell  -svall;  d  and  e,  mature 
fiber  with  definite  cell  wall.     X  325.     (After  Bowman.)     Surfacefiber. 

group  also  is  i)laced  the  leaf  scales  or  tomeiitum  found  on  the  under 
surfaces  of  leaves,  etc.,  or  on  the  leaf  buds  of  both  endogenous  and 
exogenous  plants,  which  can  only  be  used  for  upholstery,  or  as  tinder. 
Epidermal  strii>s  of  palm  leaves,  raffia  being  an  example,  are  also 
included  with  the  surface  fibers. 

The  pseudo-fibers  are  not  fibers,  but  substances  used  as  their  substi- 
tutes. However,  they  are  so  clearly  defined  in  the  scheme  of  classifi- 
cation it  W'ill  not  be  necessary  to  describe  them  further  or  to  give 
examples.  Fig.  5  represents  sphagnum  moss,  used  as  a  packing 
material. 

ECOXOMIC    CLASSIFICATIOX. 

The  highest  use  for  which  a  fiber  may  be  employed  is  in  the  manu- 
facture of  cloth  or  woven  fabric.  As  these  fabrics  vary  greatly  in  tex- 
ture from  the  fineness  of  delicate  linen  cambric  to  the  coarseness  of  Jute 
bagging,  it  would  seem  that  a  large  number  of  fibers  might  be  consid- 
ered si^innable  forms  and  capable  of  manufacture.  In  point  of  tact, 
however,  a  comparatively  small  number  are  actually  spun  and  woven 


28 


USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


as  commercial  articles,  these  having  proved  their  superior  adapta- 
bility for  the  special  purposes  for  which  they  are  employed,  and  the 
form  and  appearance  of  the  different  manufactures  from  them  having 
become  in  a  measure  so  fixed  that  change  could  not  be  made  without 
serious  result.  And,  besides,  it  should  be  recognized  that  such  change 
might  necessitate  complete  change  in  an  entire  system  of  textile  machin- 
ery employed  in  a  special  industry.     Examples  of  the  fabric  fibers  of 

the  first  rank  are  China  grass 
(bast  fiber),  pineapple  (struc- 
tural fiber),  and  cotton  (surface 
fiber) ;  of  the  second  rank,  jute 
(bast  fiber)  and  coir  or  cocoa- 
nut  (structural  fiber).  The 
FABRIC  fibers,  therefore,  are 
easily  disposed  of,  and  we  come 
to  the  next  of  the  higher  uses  in 
which  fibers  are  employed,  the 
manufactureof  threads,  twines, 
cords,  and  ropes,  or,  reduced 
to  a  term,  (ORDAge.  The 
fibers  employed  for  this  group 
of  manufactures  include  all  the 
spinning  and  weaving  fibers, 
which  for  the  most  part  are 
employed  in  the  manufacture 
of  thread  and  fine  twines,  and 
a  larger  number  of  coarser 
fibers,  Avhich  also  have  their 
substitutes,  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  which  ordinary  sys- 
tems of  cordage  machinery  are 
generally  adapted.  In  this 
grouj),  also,  must  be  included  a 
still  larger  number  of  "native" 
fibers,  or  those  which  are  ex- 
tracted, prepared,  and  rudely 
spun  or  wrought  into  ropes  by 
hand  by  the  natives  of  the 
countries  where  they  are  pro- 
duced, the  finer  kinds  being  used  for  sewing  thread,  fish  lines,  nets,  and 
hammocks.  Even  the  group  of  "native  fibers"  used  for  cordage  is 
capable  of  subdivision  into  prepared  fibrous  material,  for  spinning  and 
twisting,  and  unprepared  bark,  or  the  whole  stems  or  leaves  of  plants 
or  bundles  of  unprepared  bast,  simply  twisted  together  to  form  a  very 
rough  rope  or  cable.  Such  cordage  has  been  largely  used  in  South 
America  and  in  India  in  the  construction  of  rope  bridges.     Examples 


Fig.  5. — Spliaguum  moss. 


ECONOMIC    CLASSIFICATION.  29 

of  tlie  cordage  fibers  are:  Cominereial — for  threads,  flax  (bast  fiber); 
for  twines,  common  hemp  (bast  fiber),  and  for  ropes,  manila  and  sisal 
hemi)S  (strnctmal  fiber);  native — for  fine  twines,  fisli  lines,  etc.,  Inctian 
hemp  (or  Apocynum)  (bast  fiber);  for  ropes,  the  Ynccas  (structural 
fiber);  for  binding  and  rongh  sewing  material,  si)ruce  roots  (woody 
fiber);  and  for  fish  lines,  l<el[)  or  seaweed,  used  in  Alaska  and  other 
high  northern  latitudes  (pseudo  fiber). 

The  third  use  is  the  preparation  of  certain  tree  basts  that  are 
extracted  from  the  bark  in  layers  or  sheets,  and  whi(;h,  by  pounding, 
are  made  into  rough  substitutehi  for  cloth.  Such  cloth  has  long 
been' used  by  the  natives  of  the  Pacific  islands,  and  is  known  as  Tappa 
or  Kapa.  Other  forms,  such  as  the  Damajagua,  of  Ecuador,  are  used 
in  South  America  as  cloth,  while  similar  fibrous  bast  is  employe<l  in 
India  in  its  primary  form,  for  sacks,  etc.  In  this  group  are  also  included 
the  more  delicate  tree  basts  that  are  extracted  in  thin  lacelike  layers 
and  known  as  lace  barks,  as  well  as  other  forms  of  which  the  cigarette 
bast,  or  Cuban  bast,  is  an  examijle.  Certain  close-textured  fibrous 
growths  from  palm  trees,  Mhen  they  may  be  secured  in  thin  sheets, 
likewise  come  into  this  category. 

A  fourth  use  is  in  the  manufacture  of  brushes  and  brooms,  for 
which  a  different  class  of  fibers  are  employed  than  either  the  fabric  or 
cordage  fibers.  The  first  essentials  of  a  brush  fiber  are  toughness  and 
stifthess,  qualities  found  in  many  of  the  fibers  from  P^ndogens,  and  the 
brush  fibers,  therefore,  especially  the  commercial  species,  are  largely 
derived  from  palms.  Grasses  and  grass  roots  are  also  used,  while  the 
best  substitute  for  animal  bristles  is  a  species  of  Agave,  the  fibro-vas- 
cular  bundles  of  which  are  large,  smooth,  rigid,  and  cylindrical.  The 
most  important  commercial  brush  fibers  derived  from  palms  are  noted 
as  Piassaba,  or  Bass,  of  which  there  are  several  forms  from  as  many 
different  species.  An  American  example  of  palm  brush  fiber  is  found 
in  the  finished  product  from  crushed  and  softened  palmetto  leaf  stems. 
Coarser  brush  material  consists  of  twigs  or  small  stems  of  woody  plants, 
or  even  of  splints  of  wood,  while  the  aboriginies  and  "natives"  use 
anything  that  has  the  recpiisite  stiffness,  from  a  bunch  of  grass  to  the 
small  branches  of  bushes  tied  together.  Examples  of  commercial 
brush  fibers  are  Tampico,  from  Agave  heteracantha,  Piassaba,  or  Bass, 
from  Attaha  funifera,  a  palm,  and  Broom  root,  from  the  roots  of  EjH- 
cajnpes  macroura,  a  Mexican  grass. 

The  fifth  group  of  uses  comprises  plaited  or  coarsely  woven 
MANUFACTURES  of  articles  employed  in  the  domestic  economy,  some 
of  which  are  of  commercial  importance,  while  the  greater  number  are 
"native"  productions.  The  materials  used  are  the  whole  stems  of 
reeds,  rushes,  or  grasses,  palm  leaves,  coarse  tree  basts,  etc.,  wrought 
or  plaited  together  in  the  simplest  manner  possible.  Some  of  these 
articles  may  be  enumerated  as  follows:  Mats  and  mattings,  screens, 
wallets,  bags,  saddle  cloths,  sandals,  hats,  toys,  chair  seats,  and  bas 
ketry  in  endless  form.     Examples  of  the  commercial  manufactures  are 


30  USEFUL  FIBER  PLANTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 

tlie  Japanese  mattings  from  the  mat  lusli  (  J  uncus  effnsvs),  tbeEnssiau 
mattings  from  tbe  bast  of  the  linden  tree,  the  finely  snbdivided  leaves 
of  Carl Hclorica  jmJmata  for  P-duama  hats,  and  the  split  stems  or  straw 
of  wheat,  rye,  barley,  and  rice,  for  braids  or  straw  plait,  all  of  which 
are  structural  fibers,  save  the  lUissian  bast.  Examples  of  "native" 
or  aboriginal  manufactures  are  the  sleeping  mats  from  various  sedges 
or  grasses,  the  Kast  Indian  tatties  and  screens  from  the  fragrant  roots 
of  the  Khus-Khus;  the  split  leaves  of  Yucca,  used  for  making  sandals, 
and  the  rain  coats  of  China  and  Jai^an. 

The  use  of  fibers  or  fibrous  substances  in  the  coarse  weaving  or 
plaiting  of  basketry  is  an  industry  that  belongs  to  all  civilized  coun- 
tries and  that  is  i)racticed  by  the  native  tribes  of  tlie  world,  ami  a  cata- 
logue of  the  varied  forms  would  be  too  long  for  enumeration  on  tliese 
pages.  F>y  reason  of  the  similarity  of  construction  and  materials  used, 
we  must  also  include  in  this  class  a  considerable  number  of  articles  that 
resemble  baskets,  known  as  willow  ware,  such  as  hampers  and  infants' 
carriages;  and  even  chairs,  that  are  i)roduced  from  willow  withes;  and 
chair  bottoms  are  also  included.  AVhile  the  commercial  basket  mate- 
rial is  confined  chiefly  to  the  osiers,  or  willows,  to  certain  forms  of  wood 
splints,  and  to  a  few  species  of  rushes  and  the  grain  straws,  the  native 
and  Indian  basket  fibers  are  legion,  for  they  include  a  range  of  \'egetable 
substances  from  the  stipes  of  delicate  ferns,  and  the  smaller  grasses, 
through  the  sedges,  reeds,  the  bamboos,  the  palms,  and  liliaceous  plants, 
to  the  stems  and  twig-5  of  shrubs,  and  even  the  S])lints  from  the  wood 
of  trees,  or  their  subdivided  woody  roots.  A  few  exami)les  of  tliis  class 
of  manufactures  are  the  sweet-scented  grass  baskets  made  by  the  New 
England  Indians  from  the  holy  grass;  the  delicate  fern  baskets  of  the 
Sandwich  Islanders,  the  Yucca  coil  baskets,  and  others  by  the  llopi 
Indians  of  xVrizona,  the  sumac  and  willow  trays,  and  the  spruce-root 
baskets  of  Northern  tribes,  palm-leaf  baskets,  and  those  from  bamboos, 
sedges,  and  reeds.  Among  commercial  forms  are  the  Italian  straw-plait 
baskets,  the  Buscola  baskets  from  certain  sedges,  the  osier  manufac- 
tures from  Italy,  and  the  ash  and  white-oak  splint  baskets  made  in  our 
own  country,  together  with  chair  bottoms  ])laited  in  rattau  or  rushes. 

A  sixth  form  of  utility  is  the  employment  of  fibers  or  fibrous  sub- 
stances in  mass  as  FiLLiNd  material,  for  stuffing  pillows,  cushions, 
mattresses,  furniture,  etc.,  or  as  packing  substances.  The  surface  fibers 
for  the  most  part  compose  this  class,  as  the  bast  fibers  are  too  valu- 
able, while  the  structural  fibers  are  too  stiff  for  such  purposes,  excep- 
tions being  the  shredded  leaves  of  palms,  the  commercially  prepared 
S])anish  moss  (  TiUandsia  nsneoides),  known  as  vegetable  hair,  and  the 
familiar  corn  "shucks."'  The  pseudo-fibers  embraced  in  group  5  are 
also  largely  used  as  packing  material,  though  a  notable  exception  should 
be  made  of  certain  leaves,  as  well  as  species  of  fungi,  and  Alaskan  sea- 
weed, the  last  being  twisted  into  fish  lines,  the  fungi  used  for  making 
cai)s,  table  mats,  etc.,  or  employed  as  tinder.  Mycelium  lias  also  been 
employed  as  a  substitute  for  fabric. 


ECONOMIC    CLASSIFICATION.  31 

A  seveuth  and  most  important  use  is  in  the  maiiufiicture  of  i'APEr. 
With  this  brief  enumeration  of  some  of  the  ways  in  which  fibers  aie 
employed  by  man  the  foih)wiii<^'  economic  classification,  relating-  to  the 
utility  of  fiber  and  fibrous  substances,  is  presented: 

A.  Spinning  kihkhs. 

1.  Fahric  fhcra. 

(a)  Fibers  of  the  first  rank,  for  spinning  and  weaving  into  fine  and  coarse 
textures  for  wearing  apparel,  domestic  use,  or  house  furnishing 
and  decoration,  and  for  awnings,  sails,  etc.  (The  conuuercial  forms 
are  cotton,  tlax,  ramie,  hemi>,  pineai)ple,  and  New  Zealand  flax.) 

(6)  Fibers  of  tlie  second  rank,  used  for  burlap  or  gunny,  cotton  bagging, 
woven  mattings  and  floor  coverings,  and  other  coarse  uses.  (Com- 
mercial examples  are.iute  and  coir.) 

2.  NettiiKj  fibers. 

(a)  Lace  flbers,  wliich  are  cottou,  flax,  ramie,  agave,  etc. 

(6)  Coarse  netting  flbers,  for  all  forms  of  nets,  and  for  hammocks. 
(Commercial  forms:  Cotton,  flax,  ramie.  New  Zealand  flax,  agave, 
etc.)  The  native  netting  flbers  are  legion,  and  include  the  flbers 
derived  from  tree  basts,  palms,  etc. 

3.  Cordatje fibers. 

(a)  Finespun  threads  and  yarns  other  than  for  weaving;  cords,  lines,  and 

twines  (all  of  the  commercial  fabric  flbers,  sunn,  Mauritius,  and 
bow-string  hemps,  New  Zealand  flax,  and  the  so-called  commercial 
hard  fibers,  coir,  manila  and  sisal  hemps,  and  other  forms) ;  the 
fish  lines  made  from  seaweed. 

(b)  Ropes  and  cables.     (Chiefly  common  hemp,  sisal  and  manila  hemps, 

when  produced  commercially.  In  native  manufactures  made  from 
palm  flber,  yuccas,  and  many  other  ^ilants.) 

B.  TiK  MATERIAL  (vough  fivixted). 

Very  coarse  material,  such  as  stripped  palm  leaves,  the  peeled  bark  of 
trees,  and  other  coarse  growths  used  without  preparation,  and 
employed  in  the  construction  of  huts,  fences,  as  emergency  cord- 
age, and  sometimes  as  cables  for  "rope  bridges,'"  with  other  native 
uses  too  numerous  to  mention. 

C.  NaTUKAL   TEXTlIiES. 

1.  Tree  basts,  ivith  toufjh  'u>terhicl)i.<i  fibers. 

(a)  Substitutes  for  clolh,  prepared  by  simple  strijjping  and  pounding. 

(Examples:  The  Tappa  ov  Kapa  cloth  of  the  Paciflc  islands;  the 
Damajuhato  of  South  American  tribes.) 

(b)  Lace  l)arks.     (The  best  example  is  the  bast  Irom  Laf/etta  Uiifearia, 

of  Jamaica,  which  has  been  used  for  cravats,  frills,  ruflles,  etc., 
and  likewise  as  thongs  and  whiiie.) 

2.  The  ribbon  or  lai/er  basts,  extracted  in  thin,  smooth-surfaced,  flexible  strips 

or  sheets.     (Examples:  The  Cuba  bast  that  is  employed  commer- 
cially as  a  millinery  material,  i)lain  and  dyed  in  colors;  cigarette 
basts  for  wrappers.) 
8.  Interlacing  structural  filler  or  sheaths. 

(a)  Pertaining  to  leaves  and  leaf  stems  of  palms,  such  as  the  flbrous 
sheaths  found  at  the  bases  of  the  leafstalks  of  tlie  cocoanut. 

(6)  Pertaining  to  flower  buds.  The  natural  caps  or  hats  derived  from 
several  species  of  palms. 

jyTyxE.— The  separated  filaments  of  these  cloth  substitutes,  .sheet 
or  ribbon  basts,  etc.,  are  also  employed,  by  twisting,  as  cordage. 


32  USEFUL    FIBER   PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

I).  Brush  fibers. 

1.  Brushes  manufactured  from  prepared  fiber. 

(a)  For  soft  brushes.     (Substitutes  for  auiiiiiil  bristles,  such  as  Tanipico.) 
(h)  For  liard  brushes.     (Examples:  Palmetto  fiber,  palmyra,  kittul,  etc.) 

2.  Brooms  and  whishs. 

(a)  Grasslike  tibers.     (Examples:  Broom  root,  broom  corn,  etc.) 
(ft)  Bass  fibers;   also  for  coarse  brushes  aud  sweepers.     (Monkey  bass, 
Piassaba,  etc.) 

3.  Very  coarse  brushes  and  brooms. 

Materials  used  iu  street  sweeping,  etc.     Usually  twigs  and  s))lints. 

E.  Plaiting  and  rough  weaving  fihers. 

1.  Used  in  articles  for  attire,  as  hats,  sandals,  etc. 

(a)  Straw  plaits.     From  wheat,  rye,  barley,  and   rice   straw.     (Exam- 

ples: The  commercial  Tuscan  and  Japanese  braids.) 

(b)  Plaits  from  split  leaAes,  chiefly  palms  and  allied  forms  of  vegetation. 

(Examj>le:  The  celebrated  Panama  hats,  from  the  finely  di\ided 
leaves  of  L'urlndorica  pnlmuta. 

(c)  Plaits  from  various  materials  used  entire  and  without  pre])aratioi'. 

(Example:  Basts  and  thin  woods  used  in  millinery  trimmings,  etc. ; 
Chinese  sandals  from  rushes.) 

2.  Mats  and  mattniys;  also  thatch  materials. 

(a)  The  commercial  mattings,  from  eastern  countries. 

(6)  Sleeping  mats  and  other  forms  of  mats  or  mattings,  screens,  etc., 

made  by  "natives"  for  their  own  use. 
(c)  Thatch  or  other  covering  or  protection  from  the  elements,  made  of 

tree  basts,  palm  leaves,  grasses,  etc. 

3.  Basketry. 

(a)  Manufactures  from  woody  fiber.     (Couuuercial  examples:  Osier  and 

splint  baskets;  the  same  forms  jiroduced  by  Indians,  and  includ- 
ing also  manufactures  from  sumac  and  other  twigs,  roots  of 
sprui'e,  etc.) 

(b)  From  the  whole  or  split  leaves  or  stems  of  cmlogeus,  or  from  any 

rigid  fibrous  material,  including  also  the  culmsof  grasses.  (Chiefly 
Indian  or  native  manufactures,  from  yucca  leaves,  palm  leaves, 
reeds,  grasses,  etc.,  used  individually  or  in  combinations.) 

4.  Miscellaneous  manufactures. 

Willow  ware  in  various  forms,  chair  bottoms  from  splints  or  rushes,  etc. 

F.  A'arious  forms  of  filling. 

1.  Stuffinrj  or  upholstery. 

(fl)  Wadding,  batting,  etc.,  usually  commercially  prejiared  lint  cotton. 
(ft)  Feather   substitutes.      For  tilling  cushions,  jtillows,  etc.,  cotton; 

seed  hairs  or  silk  cottons,  such  as  kai>ok,  Asclepias  down,  etc.; 

tomentum,  from  the  surfaces  of  stems,  leaves,  and  leaf  l)uds  of 

plants;  other  similar  soft  fibrous  material. 

(c)  Mattrass  and  furniture  filling.     The  tow  or  waste  of  prepared  fiber; 

unprepared  bast;  straw  and  grasses;  substitutes  for  curled  hair, 
as  Spanish  moss,  crin  vcgr^tal,  luaize  husks,  etc. 

2.  Caulking. 

(a)  Filling  the  seams  in  vessels,  etc.,  oakum  from  various  tibers. 
(ft)  Filling  the  seams  in  casks,  barrels,  etc.,  leaves  of  reeds  and  giant 
grasses. 

3.  Stiffening. 

In  the  manufacture  of  "staff"  for  building  purposes,  and  as  substitutes 
for  cow's  hair  in  plaster.     New  Zealand  flax  ;  palmetto  fiber. 


ECONOMIC    CLASSIFICATION.  33 

4.   Packing. 

(«)  In  bulkhoads,  etc.  (as  iu  armored  veaaels).     Examples:  Coir,  cellu- 
lose of  com   pitl),  etc.      In  machinery,   as  the  valves  of  steam 
engines,  various  soft  fibers. 
(b)  For  protection,  usually  in  transportation;  various  fibers  and  soft 
grasses;    marine  weeds,    excelsior;     also  stufliug   and  upholstery 
materials  generally. 
G.  Paper  matehial. 

1.  Textile  pajwrs. 

(a)  The  spinning  libers  in  the  raw  state.     The  secondary  (jualities,  or 

the  waste,   from  spinning  mills,    which  may  be  used   for  paper 
stock,  including  tow,  jute  butts,  mauila  rope,  etc. 

(b)  (Jottou  or  tlax  liber  that  has  already  been  sjjuu  and  woven,  l>ut  which 

as  rags  find  use  as  a  jiaper  material. 

2.  Hast  papers. 

Tbis  includes  Japanese  papers  from  soft  basts,  such  as  the  paper  mul- 
berry (JBroussonelia),  or  species  of  the  genus  Ed(jeivovthia. 

3.  I'alm  papers. 

.  From    the    fibrous   material    of    palms    and   similar   luonocotyledonous 
plants.     Example:  Palmetto  and  Yucca  papers. 

4.  Bamboo  and  grass  papers. 

This  includes  all  paper  material  from  gramineous  plants,  including  the 
bamboos,  esparto,  maize,  and  the  true  grasses. 

5.  JVood  pulp,  or  cellulose. 

The  wood  of  spruce,  poi)lar,  and  similar  "paper  pulp''  woods,  prepared 
by  various  chemical  and  mechanical  processes. 

It  should  be  noted  that  au  absolute  ecouomic  classificatiou  of  uses 
with  relation  to  species  is  impossible,  as  the  same  tiber  may  be  used  iu 
several  ways.  Manila  hemp  is  mauufactured  into  rope,  aud  old  mauila 
rope  iuto  mauila  paper.  Cottou  is  used  for  fabrics,  as  a  netting-  fiber, 
for  cordage,  in  upholstery,  and  in  paper.  In  fact,  there  are  very  few 
fibers  which  may  not  be  made  into  paper,  the  amount  of  cellulose  they 
contain  and  the  cost  of  the  process  by  which  they  are  converted  being 
the  main  considerations.  The  same  plant  may  also  yield  two  kinds  of 
libers,  as  lint  cotton  covering  the  seed,  and  cotton  bast,  strijiped  from 
the  stalk. 

12247— No.  9 3 


DESCRIPTIVE  CATALOGUE  OF  WORLD'S  FIBERS. 


[Abbreviations. — Countries. — Afr.,  Africa;  Alg.,  Algeria;  Andain.  Is.,  Andaman 
Islands;  Arab.,  Arabia;  Arg.,  Argentina;  Aus.,  Austria;  Austr.,  Australia;  liomb., 
Bombay;  Braz.,  Brazil;  Br.  Guian.,  British  Guiana;  Bnrni.,  Burma;  Can.,  Canada; 
Cent.  Am.,  Central  America;  Ceyl.,  Ceylon;  Yi.,  Frame;  Fr.  Guian.,  French  Guiana  ; 
Ger.,  Germany ;  Gt.  Brit.,  Great  Britain ;  Guat.,  Guatemala  ;  Hind.,  Hindostan  ;  Holl., 
Holland;  Hond.,  Honduras;  Ind.,  India;  It.,  Italy;  Jam.,  Jamaica;  Jap.,  Jjipan; 
Maurit.,  Mauritius;  Mex.,  Mexico;  N.  S.  W.,  New  South  Wales;  N.  W.  Prov.  Ind., 
North  West  Provinces  of  India;  New  Zea.,  New  Zealand;  Panj.,  Panjab;  Phil.  Is., 
Philippine  Islands;  S.  Am.,  South  America;  Sp.,  Spain;  Span.,  Spanish  speaking 
countries;  Tasm.,  Tasmania ;  Trin.,  Trinidad;  Turk.,  Turkey ;  Veuez.,  Venezuela; 
Vict.,  Victoria;  W.  Ind.,  West  Indies;  Yuc,  Yucatan. 

MuseumH  and  ixhibitions. — Bot.  Mus.  Harv.  Univ.,  Botanical  Museum  of  Harvard 
University,  Cambridge;  C.  S.  I.  Exp.,  1895,  Cotton  States  and  International  Exhibi- 
tion, 1805,  Atlanta;  Field  Col.  Mus.,  Field  Columbian  Museum  of  Chicago;  Herb. 
Col.  Uuiv.,N.  Y.,  Herbarium  of  Columbia  University,  New  York  City;  Phil.  Com. 
Mus.,  Philadelphia  Commercial  Museum;  Phil.  Int.  Exh.,  1876,  Philadel]>hia  Inter- 
national Exhibition,  1876;  Kew  Mus.,  Museum  Koyal  Kew  Gardens,  England;  Mus. 
U.  8.  Dept.  Ag.,  Museum  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture ;  Paris  Exp. 
Univ.,  1889,  Paris  Exposition  Universelle,  1889;  U.  S.  Nat.  Herb.,  United  States 
National  Herbarium;  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus.,  United  States  National  Museum;  W.  C.E., 
1893,  World's  Columbian  Exposition,  1893,  Chicago. 

An  asterisk  before  the  word  *  Specimen  denotes  that  the  author  has  examined  the 
fiber.  All  descriptive  matter  is  invariably  given  under  the  botanical  name  of  the 
species,  this  name  always  being  found  after  a  common  or  native  name  as  a  reference.] 

Aainunnas  (Pers.  and  Arab.).     See  Ananas  sativa. 
Abaca  (Phil.  Is.).     See  Mnsa  textilis. 
Abelmoschus  (see  Hihiscus). 
Abroma  augusta.     Devil's  Cotton. 

Exogeu.     Sterciiliacea-.     Perennial.     A  small  tree. 
Native  names. — Abrome  (Ft.)  ;  Oelta-kamal  and  Ulatkamhall  (hu\.). 
Wild,  and  cultivated  throughout  the  hotter  parts  of  India,  and  grows  in  Mauritius. 
The  plant  yields  three  crops  a  year,  and  is  said  to  be  more  easily  cultivated  than  jute 
or  sunn  hemp . 

Bast  Fiber. — Derived  from  the  bark  of  the  twigs;  is  strong,  white,  and  clean, 
and  much  valued  for  local  uses.  "Might  be  employed  as  a  substitute  for  silk.'' 
(  Watt.)  "A  cord  of  its  fiber  bore  74  pounds,  when  sunn  hemp  broke  with  68  ])ouu(ls." 
(Boyle.)  Chiefly  employed  for  cordage,  etc.,  by  the  natives  in  the  districts  where 
grown. 

""Sjiecimen. — Herb.  Col.  Univ.,  N.  Y.  ' 

Abroma  mollis  is  found  in  the  Isles  of  Sunda,  Molucca,  and  the  Spice  Islands;  the 
fiber  also  derived  from  the  bark. 
34 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  35 

Abrus  precatorius.     Indian  Licorice.    Rosary  plant. 

Exogen.     Legnminond'.     A  twining  Bhriih. 
Native  of  India,  but  found  in   tho    West    Indies,  Manritins,  au<l    other    tiopi<';il 
regions.     The  bark  or  bast  is  twisted  into  rough  cordage. 

Abutilon  avicennae.     Indian  Mal.l<^w. 

Exogen.     Malracea:     Herbaceous  annual. 
Native  names.— Ca«ajn»7a.  (Arg.  Rep.);  Ch'ing  Ma  (Cliina). 
See  A.  indicitm  for  Indian  names  of  Jbniilon,  sjip. 

Widely  distribiited,  north  and  south,  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  is  found 
in  the  State  of  Washington.  Although  it  has  been  considered  an  indigenous  species. 
Gray  states  that  it  was  introduced  from  India,  and  when  found  growing  wild  has 
escaped  from  cultivation.  Also  distributed  to  northern  Asia  and  westward  to 
southern  Europe.  Grows  in  northwestern  India  (Sind  and  Kashmir).  Said  to  be 
found  in  South  America;  cultivated  experimentally  in  United  States  and  India,  com- 
mercially in  China,  from  whence  the  liber  is  exported  as  China  jute.  In  the  United 
States  the  plant  grows  so  freely  upou  any  rich  soil,  even  thrusting  itself  in  and 
growing  spoutaneously,  that  it  has  come  to  be  cf)nsidered  a  farm  pest  in  many  por- 
tions of  the  country.  It  grows  luxuriantly  throughniit  the  West  and  North,  the  line 
of  States  from  Ohio  to  ISIissouri  producing  vast  quantities  of  the  bast,  which  rots 
and  goes  to  waste  upon  the  stalks  every  year.     (See  fig.  6.) 

The  revised  name  of  this  species  is  AhutUon  ahulUon. 

Bast  Fiber. — A  jute  substitute,  which  may  be  nianufacture«l  into  twine,  rope,  and 
common  cordage.  Fiber  white  and  glossy,  and  shows  good  strength.  Has  been 
manufactured  into  paper  in  Illinois,  the  ligneous  body  of  the  plant  giving  more 
cellulose  for  ])aper  stock  tlian  other  species.  Early  exiierinienters  stated  tliat  fiber 
extracted  fnmi  ])lauts  that  had  not  reached  their  maturity  would  be  fine  enough  to 
work  iuto  jams  for  carpet  fillings  and  even  fabrics.  It  takes  dyes  readily,  and  an 
advantage  is  claimed  in  this  respect  over  India  jute,  which  is  antagonistic  to  cheap 
bleaching  and  dyeing.  The  fiber  was  once  classified  in  value  between  Italian  and 
manila  hemp,  but  it  will  not  grade  so  high,  coming  nearer  to  jute,  as  is  proved  by  its 
being  sold  as  a  variety  of  jute.  The  seed  of  the  plant  is  so  hardy  that  it  is  not 
affected  by  the  severest  winter,  which  enaT)les  the  plant  to  perjietuate  its  species  in 
anj'  locality  where  introduced.  It  is  claimed  that  an  acre  of  ground  will  produces 
tons  of  Abutilon  stalks,  givingabout20per  cent  of  fiber.  Of  doubtful  economic  value, 
considering  that  we  have  other  and  better  fibers  which  are  already  in  cultivation. 

Cultivation. — Experiments  with  cultivation  in  the  United  States  date  back  to 
about  1870,  when  the  plant  attracted  considerable  attention  in  the  West,  particu- 
larly in  Illinois,  through  the  endeavors  of  Mr.  J.  H.  McCounell  to  establish  the 
industry,  and  the  fiber  was  given  a  flattering  promise  of  utility.  'The  plants  are 
stated  to  grow  9  to  14  feet  high ;  the  seed  should  be  sown  12  to  16  quarts  per  acre,  in 
corn-planting  time,  in  the  same  manner  as  hemp;  it  is  cut  with  a  reapei",  shocked 
like  hemp  till  cured,  then  water  retted  like  hemp;  a  volunteer  crop  will  spring  uj* 
the  last  of  July,  which  can  be  dew^  retted.  The  cost  of  cutting  is  given  at  75  cents 
per  acre;  water  retting,  $10;  dew  retting,  $5;  hand  cleaning,  $12;  and  half  asmuch 
by  machinery,  making  the  total  cost,  not  including  rent  of  land,  $19  to  $IU.  Messrs. 
McCounell  offered  $100  per  ton  for  all  water  retted  that  could  be  furnished  and  $75 
for  the  dew-retted.  The  crop  is  not  exhausting  to  the  soil  if  the  refuse  is  restored 
to  it. 

Seven  or  eiglit  years  later  the  plant  was  the  subject  of  special  investigation  and 
experiment  in  the  State  of  New  Jersey,  through  the  endeavors  of  Mr.  Samuel  C. 
Brown,  secretary  '"f  the  bureau  of  labor,  statistics,  and  industries  of  that  State.  A 
circular  was  issued  in  1878  for  the  twofold  purpose  of  awakening  an  interest  in  the 
subject  of  fiber  Cultivation  and  to  ascertain  what  portions  of  the  State  were  best 
adapted  to  its  cultivation.  While  the  promoters  of  these  experiments  were  satis- 
fied that  no  difficulty  existed  in  the  cultivation  of  the  fiber,  the  enterprise  failed 


36 


USEFUL  FIBER  PLANTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


completely,  notwitbstantlins^  the  fact  that  a  bounty  was  offered  for  the  production 
of  the  fiber.  It  was  demonstrated  at  the  time  of  these  experiments  that  the  plant 
would  thrive  in  any  rich  soil  suitable  for  corn  and  potatoes. 

Preparation. — The  fiber  can  be  disintegrated  and  separated  from  the  stalks  by 
steeping  in  water,  like  flax,  liemp,  or  Jute  (as  inacticed  in  India),  but  such  practice 
should  be  avoided  in  this  country  if  possible.  At  the  time  of  the  New  Jersey  experi- 
ments it  was  thought  that  the  question  of  economically  cleaning  the  fiber  had  been 


Fl:;.  0. — Tlu!  Indian  mallow,  Abutilnn  nvieenntv. 


settled  by  the  invention  of  a  "conil)ined  chemical  and  mechanical  process."  There 
18  no  doubt  that  a  combined  mechanical  and  chemical  process  must  be  employed  in 
extracting  all  jute-like  fibers,  but  the  process  must  give  straight  fiber,  uninjured  as 
to  strength,  and  with  the  natural  color  preserved.  This  means  a  machine  that  will 
strip  the  bark  at  economical  cost  and  an  after-process  that  will  remove  the  gums 
without  weakening  the  fiber.  Steeping  the  ribbons  in  water  for  the  requisite  num- 
ber of  days  is  the  simplest  form  of  accomplishing  the  result,  but  this  is  primitive. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  37 

Nevertheless,  machiue  stripping  and  water  retting  of  Jute  lias  been  practiced  in  this 
country  in  Texas  in  a  small  way.  An  ccononiicul  machine  for  extracting  this  class 
of  bast  fibers  is  yet  a  desideratnm.     See  Machinery,  Appendix  A. 

*  Specimens.— Field  Col.  Mus. ;  U.  S.  Nat.  Mns. ;  Mns.  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag. 

Abutilon  bedfordianum. 

Native  of  Brazil.  Tall  rank  shrnb.  Iiitrodnced  into  Victoriji,  Australia,  where  its 
growth  is  rapid. 

Bast  Fiueu. — Almost  white,  the  lilaments  fine  and  regular.  "The  bark  yields  a 
fiber  of  superior  (|uality,  suitable  ibr  whipcord,  line  matting,  paper,  and  perhaps 
textile  fabrics."  { (iuilfoylt.)  A  beautiful  example  of  the  liber  was  shown  in  the 
Victorian  collection,  Phil.  Int.  Exh.,  1876.  A.  alhutn  is  another  Victorian  species. 
See  Ann.  Rept.  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag.,  1879. 

*  Specimen. — Mns.  IT.  S.  Dept.  Ag. 

Abutilon  incanum. 

Nativk  Mexican  name. — Tronadora. 

The  species  is  found  in  Mexico,  acquiring  greatest  perfection  on  the  rich  bottom 
lands.     It  reaches  a  height  of  about  8  feet. 

Bast  Fiber. — F.xtracted  from  the  bark.  The  Zotlahuacar  Indians,  who  live  40 
miles  south  of  Manzanillo,  are  said  by  Dr.  Palmer  to  utilize  the  fiber  in  making  ham- 
mocks, ropes,  and  carrying  nets,  which  are  so  durable  that  they  last  from  seven  to 
ten  years  in  constant  use. 

Native  I'REPARation. — When  the  plant  is  mature,  the  lateral  branches  are  cnt 
away  and  the  stems  are  buried  in  the  mud  at  the  edge  of  Lake  Alcuzagua  (Lake  of 
the  Devil).  Three  or  fonr  days  afterwards  the  plants  are  removed  and  washed,  and 
are  then  ready  for  the  stri]i])ing  of  the  inner  bark  or  fiber.  This  is  done  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner:  The  workman,  standing  upright,  with  the  stem,  which  rests  lirmly 
upon  the  ground,  in  his  left  hand,  presses  the  right  thumb  firmly  upon  the  stick,  and 
taking  the  fiber  between  the  fingers,  he  pulls  steadily,  bending  gradually  to  the  work 
until  he  falls  upon  his  knees.  When  the  fiber  is  removed,  the  stem  rebounds  and  dies 
over  the  shoulder  of  the  operator,  stripped  of  half  its  bark.  This  seems  a  very  slow 
process,  but  jute  was  formerly  cleaned  as  slowly,  and  it  was  only  aftermany  and 
repeated  trials  that  machinery  was  ]>erfecteil  to  perform  this  tedious  work.  Prob- 
ably if  this,  like  jute,  is  allowed  to  die  before  cutting,  it  would  become  brittle  and 
fit  only  for  paper  manufacture;  therefore,  in  more  northern  latitudes,  it  msiy  be  best 
to  cut  the  plants  before  frost.  Experiments  will  be  necessary  to  ascertain  the  proper 
time  for  cutting,  the  length  of  time  it  should  be  immersed,  if  water  will  "accomplish 
the  same  result  as  mud,  rendering  the  bark  soft  and  pliable.  (Dr.  Edw.  Palmer, 
Contr.  U.  S.  Nat.  Herb.,  Vol.  I.) 

Abutilon  indicum.     Country  Mallow. 

Native  namhs. —Eanr/hi  (Hind.);  PoUiri  (Beng.;;  l>eishar  (Arab.);  Jhiralhle- 
shanah  (Pers.) ;    rram  {Malay);  Anoda-fiaha  (Ceyl.). 

A  small  annual  shrub,  common  to  India  and  Burma, but  cultivated  in  Mauritius; 
found  in  south  Afriia. 

Bast  Fiber. — Very  similar  to  that  of  A.  avicennff,  which  see.  "  The  stems  contftin 
good  fibersuitable  for  cordage.''  (  Watt.)  A  fine  sample  of  the  fiber  was  exhibited  in 
the  Indian  Court,  Forestry,  W.  C.  E.,  1893.  The  leaves,  seed,  and  bark  of  this  spe- 
cies and  A.  asiaiicum  are  used  as  a  medicine  in  India.  The  last-named  species  also 
yields  a  good  cordage  fiber. 

There  are  10  or  12  Indian  species  of  Abutilon,  among  which  may  be  also  named  A. 
grareolen.s,  A.  muficnm,  and  A.  poli/inidrum,  all  of  which  are  fiber  plants.  The  latter 
is  said  to  yield  a  long  silky  fiber  resembling  hemp. 


38  USEFUL  FIBER  PLANTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 

Abutilon  moUe.     Lantern  Flower. 

Native  of  Brazil.  Introduced  into  Australia,  where  it  is  considered  worthy  of  cul- 
tivation. 

Bast  Fiber. — "Very  strong  and  suitable  for  matting,  paper,  etc."  (  GuUfoijle. )  The 
sample  of  liber  shown  in  the  Victorian  collection,  Phil.  Int.  Exh.,  1876,  was  poorly 
prepared  and  lacked  in  strength.  The  sample  was  accompanied  l)y  fiber  from  two 
other  Brazilian  species  introduced  into  Australia,  A.  venosum  and  A.  orycarpion.  ( )f 
the  first  Dr.  Guilfoyle  says:  "Fiber  of  fine  i^uality,  suitable  for  fishing  lines,  textile 
fabrics,  etc."  The  fiber  of  the  latter  was  Avell  prepared,  white,  soft,  and  lustrous, 
and  was  produced  in  Oneeusland.  A.  (jiyaiilenm  is  another  .South  American  species, 
noted  for  withstanding  cold.     Fiber  has  been  extracted  from  the  bark. 

'"Sjiecimen  of  J.  molh;  Mns.  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag. 

Abutilon  periplocifolium.     Maholtine. 

The  species  thrives  in  tropical  America. 

Live  plants,  stalks,  and  fiber  of  this  species  Avere  received  from  Trinidad  through 
T.  J.  St.  Hill  in  1890.  The  stalks  reach  a  height  of  12  feet.  The  plant  grows  wild, 
but  can  be  easily  cultivated,  and  large  crops  assured.  Seed  was  obtained  and  sent 
to  several  points  in  Florida  for  experiment,  but  the  Department  was  unable  to  secure 
from  the  experimenters  any  reports  of  the  results. 

Bast  Fibku. — When  the  bark  is  green,  it  can  be  peeled  its  entire  length  with  no 
other  preparation  than  steeping  the  stalks  in  ])Ools  of  water  from  five  to  eight  days. 
The  color  of  the  fil)er  is  a  creamy  yellow,  anil  some  of  the  samples  received  measured 
11  feet  10  inches  in  length.  Samples  of  the  fibers  submitted  to  London  brokers  were 
favorably  reported  upon  and  valued  at  £17  to  £20  per  ton. 

A  true  bnst  fiber  of  good  quality.  The  stems  strip  well  and  readily  and  the  b.irk 
"rets"  out,  leaving  a  fine  fiber  of  a  type  to  compete  with  jute.  A  very  large  cro]>  of 
this  fiber  can  bo  grown  per  acre,  but  as  no  regular  cultivation  exists  only  an  approxi- 
mate estimate  can  l>e  given.  It  is  estimated  that  as  much  as  10,000  pounds  of  stripjied 
bark  can  be  obtained  from  an  acre,  and  that  from  25  to  40  per  cent  of  cleaned  fiber 
could  be  obtained  from  this.     Iti)romises  best  of  all  the  newer  fibers.     {J.  H.  Hart.) 

Mr.  St.  Hill  states  that  it  thrives  magnificently  in  barren  and  rocky  soil;  the  laud 
is  prepared  simply  bj'  burning,  when  the  seeds  are  thrown  broadcast  over  the  plain, 
about  the  beginning  of  the  month  of  May,  and  the  stalks  are  ready  to  be  converted 
into  fiber  one  year  after.  No  attention  is  required  to  be  paid  to  the  plants  while 
growing,  and  wild  weeds,  etc.,  do  not  affect  them  in  the  least.  Plants  growing  very 
near  to  each  other  will  produce  very  tall  stems,  say  from  10  to  12  feet  high  and 
straight,  but  those  that  happen  to  grow  far  a)>art  will  shoot  out  branches  and  make 
bad  growth,  and  the  ribbons  will  be  very  irregular. 

*  .Vc'""*c"s.— Mus.  l^  S.  Dept.  Ag. ;  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus. ;  Field  Col.  Mns. 

Abutilon  striatum.     Streaked  Lantern  Flower. 

Native  of  Brazil.  Widely  distributed  as  a  flowering  plant  in  greenhouses  and 
gardens.     Common  in  Uniteil  States.     Introduced  into  Victoria. 

Fiber. — It  has  only  been  produced  ex])erimentally  in  Victoria.  "  Its  bark,  which 
peels  readily,  furnishes  a  fiber  of  fine  texture."  Is  worthy  of  experiment  in  the  l'nit»(l 
States. 

*  Specimen. — Mus.  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag. 

Acacia  leucophloea.     Panicled  Acacia. 

Exogeu.     Le(jinni))osa\     A  tree. 

Native  Xames.— Sw/erf-AiAar  (Hind.);  Safcd-habiU  (Burm.),  and  many  others. 
Wild  in  many  districts  of  India,  Ceylon,  and  Burma.     Plains  of  Panjab  to  South 
India. 

Bast  Fiber. — "A  coarse,  tough  fiber  is  ])repared   from   the  bark,  much  valued 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE. 


39 


(locally)  for  fishing  nets  and  ropes."  (Dr.  Ceorge  Wait.)  A.  luodesta  \»i\m\\%\om- A  hy 
Llotard  as  a  possible  paper  plant  in  India;  IcnowTi  as  I'liulahi. 

Acanthorhiza  vrarscewiczii. 

A  mayuiticfnt  palm  found  in  the  forests  of  Chirifiiii.  "  I'^inployed  by  tbe  natives 
for  nialving  brushes  of  very  fine  quality,  carpets,  tajKstries,  etc''  (Manual  IToci)li). 
Cultivated  in  greenhouses.     (See  fig.  7.) 

Achiial,  or  Aguash  (Peru).     See  Mauri tia  jiextioHa. 

Acrocomia  lasiospatha.     Great  Macaw  Palm. 

Eudogeu.     Palnuv. 

Native  name,  Mncuja  (Bra/.).     Cuban  name  of  the  fiber,  I'ita  dc  corojo. 

This  species  is  common  in  the  neighborhood  of  Para,  wliere  its  nearly  globular 
crown  of  drooping  feathery  leaves  is  verj"  ornamental.  The  fruit,  though  oily  and 
bitter,  is  very  much  esteemed  and  is 
eagerly  sought  after.  It  grows  ou 
dry  soil  about  Para  and  the  Lower 
Amazon,  but  it  is  quite  unknown  in 
the  interior.  The  stem  is  about  forty 
feethigh,  strong,  smooth,  and  ringed. 
The  leaves  are  rather  large,  terminal, 
and  drooping.  The  leaflets  are  long 
and  narrow,  and  spread  irregularly 
from  the  midrib,  every  part  of  which 
is  very  spiny.  The  sheathing  bases 
of  the  leafstalks  are  persistent  on 
the  upper  part  of  the  stem,  and  in 
young  trees  clothe  it  down  to  the 
ground.  The  spadioes  grow  from 
.among  the  leaves  erect  or  somewhat 
drooping,  and  are  simply  branched. 
The  spathes  are  woody,  persistent, 
and  clothed  with  spines.  The  fruit 
is  the  size  of  an  apricot,  globular, 
and  of  a  greenish-olive  color,  and 
has  a  thin  layer  of  firm  edible  pulp 
of  an  orange  color  covering  the  seed. 
{Wallace.) 

Structural  Fiber. — "The  strands 
of  fiber  present  a  ribbon-like  appear- 
ance somewhat  resembling  Raffia,  but 
firmer  and  not  so  papery.  Extremely 
strong  and  capable  of  being  divided 
into verj-^ tough  filaments."    {Morris.) 

Specimens  of  the  fiber  were  re- 
ceived by  the  Department  from  Cuba 
so  long  ago  ;i8  the  early  seventies. 

Tiie  ribltons  are  verj'  white.  By  rolling  between  the  hands  it  breaks  up  into  innu- 
merable filaments,  some  of  great  fineness.  It  might  prove  a  valuable  fiber  for  cord- 
age, though  a  drawba<'k  (in  the  specimen  examined)  is  the  presence  of  little  spines, 
doubtless  those  mentioned  by  Squier,  which  are  as  sharp  as  needles,  and  half  an 
inch  in  length.  They  are  not  readily  seen,  but  by  gra8])ing  a  handful  of  the  fiber 
in  the  hand  they  make  their  presence  known  with  painful  surety.  Two  varieties 
of  Corojo  are  given  in  the  catalogue  of  M.  Bernardin,  the  "Corojo  de  la  tnia" 
from  the  West  Indies,  stated  to  be  Cocoa  crispa,  and  the  Corojo,  Corozo,  or  Cocoyal 


FiQ.  7. — Plant  of  Acanthorhiza  warxccwiezH 


40 


USEFUL  FIBER  PLANTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


from  Central  America,  without  name.  Squier  states  that  the  Corosal,  Coyal,  or 
Corojo  palm  abounds  in  dry  and  rocky  locations  in  Central  America  and  Cuba  and 
some  other  portions  of  tropical  America.  It  is  described  as  a  tree  20  feet  high,  pro- 
ducing a  large  cluster  of  nuts,  with  a  hard  shell,  which  yields  an  oil  similar  to  that 
of  the  cocoanut.  The  trunk  and  leaves  of  the  coyal  are  armed  with  long,  narrow, 
hard  spines.  "The  leaves  are  lined  with  a  long  and  excellent  fiber  called  Pita  de 
corojo,  from  which  ropes  ami  cords  are  manufactured.  The  fibers  are  e<iual  to  those 
of  Henequen,  from  which  they  can  hardly  be  distinguished."  Among  Brazilian  jialm 
fibers  the  handbook  of  Para  (W.  C.  E.,  1893)  mentions  the  mucuja  as  this  species. 

A  iine  sample  of  Corojo  fiber  from  Cuba 
was  contributed,  by  Messrs.  Ide  &  Chris- 
tie, to  Kew  in  1890.  At  the  time  it  was  im- 
pos.sible  to  trace  its  origin.  A  careful  ex- 
amination showed  that  the  fiber  was  fonned 
of  the  eijidermal  layer  of  a  palm  leaf  and 
probably  derived  from  a  species  of  Jiacfris 
or  Acrocomia  armed  Avith  prickles.  In 
March,  189.5,  a  further  inquiry  elicited  tlie 
fact  that  the  fiber  was  ol)taini^d  from  the 
uuo])eiicd  leaflets  of  the  "  (Irn-grn  palm  of 
the  West  Indies  (./.  lasiospatha).'"  The  Kew 
Mus.  contains  a  cap  and  a  strainer  made  from 
the  spathe,  the  latter  used  as  a  strainer  for 
cassava.  Dr.  Morris  says:  '■  It  is  a  remark- 
able fiber,  and  in  point  of  teusil(<  strength 
it  surpasses  even  the  oil  piilm  fiber,  Eluis 
(/uhieenais."  For  further  details  refer  to 
Ann.  Rept.  U.  S.  Dep.  Ag.,  1879,  p.  551; 
Cantor  Lectures  on  Commercial  Fibers,  by 
Dr.  I).  Morris,  p.  31. 

* Specvmcns. — Mus.  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag. 


Acrocomia  sclerocarpa. 
Tree.    Gru  grit. 


iNfACAW 


Endogen.     A  palm. 

Nativmc  names. — Macaiiha  (Braz.);  groo 
groo  (W.Ind.),  of  Fawcett. 
The  tree  grows  from  20  to  30  feet  high; 
found  in  .lamaica,  Granada,  Trinidad,  Gui- 
ana, and  Brazil.  (See  fig.  8.) 
Fiber. — Derived  from  the  leaves,  valued 
for  local  uses.  "  Distinguished  from  other  fibers  of  this  class  by  remarkable  fineness 
and  softness."  (Cross.)  .1.  lofal  appeared  in  the  collection  of  Argentina.  "The 
leaves  of  this  species  give  a  good  textile  fiber."  (Xiederlein.)  A.  tolai  is  known  as 
the  Mhocai/n.  See  notes  on  the  State  of  Para,  Exposition  Handbook.  Brazil,  W.  C. 
E.,  1893. 

*  Specimens. — W.  C.  I'.,  exhibits  of  Brazil  and  Argentina. 


Fig.  8.— Tlie  Mucu.j.a,  or  Gni  gru  P.tliu,  Aero 
comia  lasiospatha. 


Adam's  needle.     See  Yucca. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  41 

Adansonia  digitata.    Baobau  Tree.     Monkey  Bread  Tree  of 
Africa. 

Exogen.     Malvacea'.     One  of  the  largest  trees  in  the  worlil. 

Native   names. — (ioralha-amJi  (Boml>.);    ITnjed  (Ar.ab.);    ^fowal)a  (Afr. ),  and 
many  others. 

Native  of  Africa  (west  and  interior).  "  This  is  one  of  the  largest  and  longest-lived 
trees  in  the  world."  (Watt.)  Abounds  Senegal  to  Abyssinia.  Found  in  India,  where 
it  has  been  cultivated  experimentally.     Introduced  into  the  West  Indies. 

Fiber. — Deri  veil  from  the  bark;  strong  and  ranch  valued  for  cordage;  can  be 
woven  into  cloth.  The  commercial  liber  from  Africa  quot«^d  in  London  market  at 
£9  to  £15  per  ton. 

"The  hard,  outer  bark  is  first  chopped  away,  and  the  inner  l)ark  stripj>ed  off  in 
large  sheets.  These  are  beaten  to  remove  pithy  matter,  sun  dried,  and  l>ale(l.  Afri- 
cans use  tlie  fiber  for  rope,  twine,  and  sacking.  In  India  elepliaut  saddles  are  made 
from  it.''     (Spon.)     "Cultivation  deserves  to  be  extended."     (Walt.) 

This  fiber  has  been  mentioned  as  a  raw  material  for  ])a])er  makers  in  this  country. 
Ide  and  Christie,  tlie  London  fiber  brokers,  inform  me  that  the  bark  of  this  species  has 
never  been  imported  into  (ireat  Britain  from  either  Senegal  or  Abyssinia.  It 
has  never  been  a  large  trade  and  has  invariably  come  from  St.  Paul  de  Loando  and 
perhaps  some  adjacent  port  in  Portuguese  west  Africa,  to  either  Liverpool  or  Hull. 
The  fiber  w.as  held  in  some  esteeniby  makers  of  strong  light-colored  wrapplngpapers 
called  in  the  trade  "small  hands,"  and  ten  or  twenty  years  ago  good  parcels  ranged 
in  value  from  £8  to  £10  per  ton.  It  formerly  came  to  Liverpool  and  Hull  from  the 
Avest  coast,  both  direct  and  by  way  of  Portugal,  but  no  direct  slii])ments  have  been 
made  since  1892.  The  importations  have  fallen  off  from  190  tons  in  1887  to  2  tons  in 
1896. 

Adki  (Ind.).     See  Areea  catechu. 

Adiantum  si)p.    Maiden-hair  Ferns. 

A  large  genus  of  polypodiaceous  ferns,  the  representatives  of  which  are  fonnd  in 
many  parts  of  the  world,  but  more  particularly  in  the  Tropics.  They  all  have  black 
shining  sti])es,  and  in  structure  are  unlike  any  other  ferns. 

Structural  Fiber. — J.  ptdtiium.  is  a  beautiful  specimen  found  in  this  country. 
It  affords  "an  elegant  material  for  the  woof  of  the  nicer  caps  and  l»askets  of  the 
Hoopa  and  Klamath  Indians."     {T)r.  V.  Havard.) 

The  black  glossy  stalks  of  A.  capiUus-veneris,  as  well  as  of  rteris  deciphnu,  are 
worked  by  native  women  (of  Hawaii)  into  ornamental  baskets  and  mats  ( Hille- 
hrand).     Native  Hawaiian  name,  Iiraiiva. 

^schynomene  aspera. 

Exogen.     Leguminosw.     A  small  stibfloating  bush. 
Native  j^amks.— Sola  or  SIioIu  (Beng.);  ratdpan  {Buvm.}. 
Frequents  marshes,  growing  in  Bengal,  Burma,  Assam,  and  Sontli  India  daring 
the  inundation  jieriod. 

FlBEi;. — Derived  from  the  bark  (in  Burma).  The  pith  is  used  for  floats  ^>\  fish- 
ermen, and  the  same  is  used  by  Europeans  for  making  hats,  which  are  very  light  and 
perfect  protectors  from  the  sun's  heat.     See  Die.  i:c.  Prod.  Ind.,  Vol.  I,  p.  125. 

African  Button  Flower.     Dais  cotinifolia. 
African  Millet.     Eleus'me  coracana. 
Agave  spp. 

A  very  large  genus  of  fleshy-leaved  plants  belonging  to  the  Jmari/lUdacefr,  chiefly 
found  in  Mexico,  and  Central  and  South  America,  a  few  species  creeping  up  to  and 


42  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

crossing  the  southern  boundaries  of  the  United  States.  Some  of  the  species,  as  the 
familiar  Century  plant  (A.  americana),  are  cultivated  in  our  conservatories  as  orna- 
mental plants.  They  tlower  hut  once,  sending  up  a  flower  stalk  or  "mast"  some- 
times the  height  of  20  feet,  upon  which  the  flowers  appear.  Two  or  three  species 
furnish  valuable  commercial  fibers,  while  others  not  known  to  commerce  might  be 
utilized  in  like  manner.  Several  of  the  species  in  Mexico  yield  the  distilled  li([uor 
known  as  mescal,  as  well  as  the  fermented  pulque,  both  of  which  are  national  bever- 
ages. A  few  of  the  more  interesting  of  the  Agaves  tliat  are  used  for  iiber  are 
described  at  length  in  the  i)ages  which  follow,  and  some  others  that  I  have  treated 
for  fiber  are  briefly  referred  to  here.  Among  the  Agaves  used  by  the  Indians  of  the 
United  States  maybe  mentioned  A.  heteracaniha,  which  is  treated  at  length  on  another 
page.  Dr.  Havard  names  A.palmeri  and  A .  parr y\  &^  the  mescal  plantsof  the  Apaches 
and  other  Indians.  They  also  yield  useful  fibers,  scraped  from  the  edible  portions  of 
the  baked  leaves. 

In  June,  1891,  the  leaves  of  some  20  species  of  Agave  were  collected  at  the  United 
States  Botanical  Gardens,  Washington,  and  run  through  a  Van  Buren  machine.  Small 
museum  specimens  only  were  secured,  and  the  iiuality  of  the  fiber  was  found  to  be 
as  follows:  A.  americana,  fiber  as  strong  as  A.sisalana  from  greenhouse  plants, 
but  quite  inferior  to  the  Florida-grown  fiber.  This  species  is  fully  described  below. 
A.  hranniana,  a  weak  fiber,  resembling  A.  jacquiuiaiia.  A.  carihua,  fiber  similar  to 
A.  rariegata  in  color  and  general  appearance,  but  finer,  and  showing  less  strength 
than  A.  americana.  A.  cordtroiji,  fiber  straight,  fine,  white,  of  average  strength.  A. 
coccixert,  three  varieties,  worthless,  -t.  flaccid  a  i^iiye  a  a  fry  fine  fiber;  not  straight, 
approaching  in  strength  that  of  A.  sisalana.  A.  decipiens,  worthless.  A.  inijliami,  a 
coarse,  harsh  fiber,  the  filaments  smooth  and  polished,  and  of  such  stift'ness  that  the 
material  would  make  a  sujierior  brush  fiber,  possibly  ri\aling  the  tampico  of  com- 
merce derived  from  A.  heteracantha.  Under  repeated  tests  three  filaments  stood  an 
average  strain  of  10  pounds.  A.  jacquiniana,  a  very  fine,  white  fiber,  but  possess- 
ing no  strength.  A.  j>r«iM08a,  worthless.  A.  kerchocei,  a  harsher  fiber  than  that 
obtained  from  the  rigida  group  below,  but  apparently  having  less  strength;  some- 
what resembles  tampico.  .(.  rigida  var.  elongata,  similar  to  the  preceding,  the  fiber 
not  distinguishable  from  it  in  appearance  or  strength.  A.  rigida  var.  longifolia,  gave 
fiber  that  was  much  finer  than  that  from  A.  sisalana  (above),  but  quite  deHcient  in 
strength.  In  appearance  it  resembles  the  fiber  from  A.  americana  rather  than  A.  sisal- 
ana, though  differing  from  either.  A.  rigida  var.  sisalana  (greenhouse  plants),  th(i 
fiber  appearetl  to  be  finer  than  that  from  Florida  plants,  and  not  (luite  so  strong, 
A.  salmiana,  almost  as  fine  as  the  fiber  from  J.  am('rlra«<t;  not  straight;  very  little 
strength.  A.  ririjjara,  similar  to  A.  itighaini,  though  not  so  coarse,  but  of  sufficient 
stift'ness  to  ])roduce  a  good  brush  fiber.  The  fiber  if  waslu'tl  when  extracted  would 
have  come  out  very  white.  Three  filaments  bore  an  average  strain  of  7  jioiinds. 
These  two  species  yielded  about  5  per  cent  of  pure  bristle  fiber.  A.  rariegata,  fiber 
very  white,  crinkly,  and  elastic,  stronger  than  A.  americana,  but  inferior  to  good  sisal 
hemp. 

Out  of  16  species  other  than  A.  rigida  (varieties)  but  2  species  can  take  rank  with 
A. rigida  var.  sisalana  in  strength,  A.  inghami  and  A.  vivipara.  In  the  next  grade 
I  would  place  J.  /fa tci(?rt,  .1.  americana,  A.  kerchorei,  and  possibly  ./.  cordcroyi,  while 
the  other  species  are  either  not  half  the  strength  of  J.  sisalana  or  are  worthless.  ./. 
latcrerens  went  to  pieces  in  the  machine,  coming  out  in  short,  pulpy  fragments. 
It  would  be  interesting  to  secure  fiber  from  these  species  as  grown  in  the  open  air  of 
the  Tropics.  No  doubt  several  of  the  better  species  would  give  fiber  of  fair  strength, 
though  inferior  to  sisal  hemp  grown  under  the  same  conditions. 

A.  Isabel  Mulford,  in  the  Seventh  Report  of  the  Missouri  Botanical  Garden,  names, 
as  the  Agaves  of  the  United  States,  A.  rirginica,  A.  rirginica  var.  iigrina,  A.  rariegata, 
A.  maculata,  A.  schottii,  A.  8chottiiva.T.  serrulala,  A.  piarriftora,  A.  lecheguilla,  A.  utah- 
ensis,  A.  deserti,  A.  applanata,  with  varieties  parryi  and  huachnccnsis,  A.  shairii.  A. 
palmeri,  A.  asperrima,  A.  americana,  A.  i-igidaviir.  sisalana,  A.  dccipiens,  and  two  species 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  43 

which  remain  unideutitied,  one  of  these  beint^  the  immense  Ajrave  tifi;nred  by  the 
author  on  page  38  of  Rept.  5,  Fib.  luv.  series. 
The  commercial  Agaves  are  described  on  the  pages  whicli  foHow. 

Agave  americana.    Century  Plant.    American  Aloe. 

Eiidogen.     AmarylUdaceo' .     Aloe-like  leaf  duster. 

Native  names. -.UaY/itf//,  the  plant;  Fita,  tlie  fiber  (iMcx.);  I'ile,  aloes  (Fr.); 
Bans-keora  (Hind.);  Jitngli  (Beng.);  ('(////i<//at/-H«r  (Ind.  of  Koyle) ;  Scnhhara 
(Arab.). 

A  native  of  tropical  America,  but  now  distributed  over  both  homisidieres.  Emi- 
ployed  iu  the  United  States  as  an  ornamental  plant;  in  Mexico,  for  its  fiber;  in  India 
(Madras),  as  a  hedge  plant  along  railways ;  in  Spain  and  Sicily,  for  cordage  and  mats ; 
in  the  West  Indies,  for  cordage,  hammocks,  and  fishing  lines;  in  South  America, 
for  various  uses.  Fig.  1,  PI.  I,  is  a  century  plant  in  the  grounds  of  the  Alcazar  Hotel, 
St.  Augustine,  Fla. 

Structural  Fiber. — Three  to  7  feet,  derived  from  the  leaves.  "  Commercial  liber 
is  white  to  straw  color.  Its  main  faults  are  the  stiffness,  shortness,  and  thinness  of 
wall  of  the  individual  fibers,  aud  a  liability  to  rot."  (Spon.)  "Composed  of  large 
filaments,  white,  brilliant,  and  readily  separated  by  friction;  it  takes  color  freely 
and  easily.  It  is  light,  and  contracts  under  water  rapidly."  {Watt.)  Commercial 
([notation,  London,  £35  to  £40  per  ton.  A  number  of  samples  in  the  (Tovernment 
fiber  exhibit  (W.  C.  F.,  1893),  including  not  only  those  prepared  by  myself,  but 
samples  extracted  liy  Mr.  T.  Albee  Smith,  of  Baltimore,  show  a  fine,  soft,  white  fiber, 
of  more  or  less  brilliancy,  a  distinctive  characteristic  being  a  wavj-  or  crinkled 
ap])earance  which  ])reveut8  the  bundles  of  fibers  in  mass  from  lying  closely  parallel, 
as  is  the  case  with  sisal  hemp  and  similar  straight  fibers.  Another  marked  peculiar- 
ity is  great  elasticity. 

Dr.  Forbes  Royle  states  that  the  India  pito  has  been  found  superior  in  strength  to 
either  coir,  jute,  or  sunn  hemp.  In  a  trial  of  strength  near  Calcutta,  the  tests  were 
made  with  ropes  1  fathom  long  aud  3  inch(!S  iu  circumference,  with  the  following 
results:  The  Agave  ox  pita  broke  in  a  strain  of  2, .519}  pounds;  coir,  2,175  pounds; 
jute,  2,456t  pounds,  and  sunn  hemp,  2,269i^  pounds.  In  an  experiment  with  Russian 
hemp  and  pita,  the  first  named  broke  with  160  pounds'  weight,  and  the  latter  with 
270  pounds.  These  experiments  show  the  great  strength  of  the  fiber,  which  is 
worthy  of  more  extended  cultivation  and  employment  in  the  arts. 

Among  the  interesting  uses  of  this  fiber  is  the  manufacture  of  lace  by  the  peasant 
women  of  Fayal.  At  one  time  the  Mus.  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag.  contained  a  valuable  series 
of  manufactures  of  this  delicate  and  beautiful  lace,  which  at  that  time  was  largely 
sold  in  Paris  at  very  high  prices.  It  was  said  by  the  donor  of  the  series  that  there 
were  but  25  women  on  the  island  capable  of  producing  this  lace,  the  art  requiring 
practice  from  childhood. 

Cultivation  and  preparation. — The  plant  is  cultivated  in  Mexico,  iu  the  south 
of  Europe,  in  India,  Mauritius,  etc.  The  best  account  of  the  method  of  cultivation 
is  given  in  the  Die.  Ec.  Prod.  Ind.,  Vol.  I,  p.  137. 

No  attempt  has  been  made  in  the  United  States  either  to  cultivate  the  species  or 
to  use  the  leaves  of  growiiig  plants  for  fiber.  R.  W.  Patou,  representing  a  California 
industrial  company,  corre8pon<led  with  the  Department  of  Agriculture  a  few  years 
ago  relative  to  cultivation  in  southern  California,  and  proposed  to  utilize  the  fiber 
in  commerce.  The  want  of  a  good  machine,  however,  was  the  principal  obstacle 
met  with  in  the  endeavor  to  start  the  industry.  A  quantity  of  leaves  were  at  that 
time  sent  to  Mr.  Van  Bureu,  of  Jacksonville,  Fla.,  to  be  extracted  l)y  his  machine, 
but  this  inventor  found  the  leaves  too  thick  and  wide  for  the  machine  as  at  that 
time  ccmstructed.  T.  Albee  Smith,  has  cleaned  the  leaves  successfully  on  a  machine 
described  in  Rept.  3,  Fib.  Inv.,  Dept.  Ag.,  p.  39.  A  powerful  machine  emjjloyed  for 
extracting  the  fiber  is  also  described  in  Spon's  Enc,  pt.  3,  p.  913. 


44  USEFUL,   FIBER   PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD, 

"The  plant  requires  about  three  years  to  come  to  perfection,  but  it  is  exceedingly 
hardy,  easy  of  propagation,  very  prolific,  and  grows  in  arid  wastes  where  scarcely 
any  other  plant  can  live.  It  perishes  after  inflorescence,  and  then  sends  up  numer- 
ous shoots.  In  Mexico  5,000  to  6,000  plants  may  be  found  on  an  acre.  The  aver- 
age number  of  leaves  is  40,  each  measuring  8  to  10  feet  long  and  1  foot  wide,  and 
yielding  6  to  10  per  cent  by  weight  of  fiber.  Thi^  culture  of  the  plant  is  being 
extended  in  America,  but  not  in  the  proportion  which  its  value  deserves.  In  India 
it  is  all  but  neglected."     (Spou.) 

A.  amcricoua  is  not  found  in  Florida,  save  in  conservatories  or  gardens,  though 
an  allied  form  was  met  with  at  various  localities.  Some  magnificent  cultivated 
examples  were  observed  in  Fernandina,  and  others  were  noticed  in  St.  Augustine, 
their  leaves  so  large  and  fleshy  that  no  ordinary  machine  could  work  them  without 
first  eutting  tbem  into  strips.  Though  the  plants  come  to  nuiturity  in  three  years, 
they  do  not  flower  before  eight,  and  sometimes  not  before  twenty  years. 

Utility. — Twines  aiul  rope;  fishing  lines,  nets,  and  hammocks;  imitation  horse- 
hair cloth,  and  other  coarse  fabrics;  Fayal  lace,  and  pai)er.  For  further  details  refer 
to  Kept.  U.  8.  Dept.  Ag.,  1879,  p.  545;  Fib.  Inv.  Kept.  5,  p.  34;  Kew  I'.ull.,  1889,  p. 
301;  Die.  Ec.  Prod.  Ind.,  Vol.  I,  p.  134;  Spou  Enc,  pt.  3,  p.  912. 

"  Sjiechnens. — W.  C.  E.,  United  States  Government  exhibit;  from  Mexico,  Costa 
Rica,  and  India;  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus. ;  Field  Col.  Mua. ;  Mus.  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag. 

Agave  aurea. 

Lower  California  and  Sonora,  Mexico.  Recently  described  by  Brandegee.  The 
plant  is  recognized  by  the  natives  as  a  form  of  lechiigidUa;  wild,  and  cultivated  in 
gardens. 

Specimens  of  the  leaves  of  this  plant  were  recently  received  by  the  Department 
from  Louis  F.  Kwiat  Kowski,  of  Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  who  stat»>s  that  the  native  name 
of  the  plant  is  lechiigii ilia  mescal.  "There  is  also  a  hchiKjuilUi  magucji,  .and  a  hchti- 
{inilla  blanca.  It  is  claimed  that  leclnignilla  hlanca  gives  the  best  mescal,  while 
h'chiiguilhi  maguey  is  the  most  cultivated  for  the  purpose."  One  of  the  largest  leaxes 
sent  weighed,  when  freshly  cut,  2^  jiounds.  Its  length  was  about  20  inches  not 
including  spine,  and  its  greatest  width  fully  (5  inches. 

Structural  Fiber. — This  correspondent  evidently  confuses  A.  aurea  with  A.  hetera- 
eantha,  the  lechiigitilla  which  supjdies  the  major  part  of  the  tampico  or  istle  fiber 
of  commerce.  Ho  says:  "The  lerhiif/inUa  mescal,  leaves  of  which  I  send  the  Depart- 
ment, gives  the  istle  fiber."  In  the  mail  with  these  specimens  a  leaf  of  the  same 
species  was  received  from  T.  Albee  Smith,  of  Baltimore,  and  probably  received  by 
him  from  the  above  source,  as  the  leaves  are  identical.  Mr.  Smith,  who  is  thoroughly 
familiiir  with  tiic  commercial  fiber  Agaves  of  Mexico,  says:  "I  send  you  a  sample 
leaf  and  fiber  of  an  Agave  I  received  last  Friday  from  Lower  California.  They  are 
the  first  I  have  ever  seen,  of  the  size  and  description,  with  such  fiber.  I  have  seen  a 
great  many  Agave  plants  having  leaves  of  about  this  size,  but  the  fiber  was  worth- 
less and  obtained  in  very  small  quantities.  My  correspondent  writes  that  he  has  sev- 
eral million  plants  that  are  now  available,  and  be  ])ropo.ses  to  extract  the  fiber  on  a 
large  scale;  he  has  forwarded  samples  to  dealers  with  good  results.  I  have  also  for- 
warded several  samples  that  he  has  sent  me  and  have  received  good  reports  there- 
from, but  I  was  under  the  impression  that  the  samples  sent  me  came  from  the  regular 
lechiiguilla  until  I  received  the  sample  leaf." 

This  species  is  an  interesting  addition  to  our  list  of  fiber  plants  that  may  be  employed 
commercially.  The  liber  compares  well  with  tampico  of  couuuerce,  and  as  the  leaf 
is  several  times  larger  it  can  be  more  economically  extracted.  Its  cultivation  wonld 
mean  a  new  and  profitable  industry,  as  the  tampico  of  commerce  is  secured  only  from 
wild  plants.     See  Agave  hcteracaiitha. 

'Specimens. — Leaves  and  fibers,  Mus.  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag. ;  U.  S.  Nat.  Herb. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE. 


45 


Agave  decipiens.     The  False  Sisal  Hemp  op  Florida. 

Found  wild  along  the  roasts  and  keys  of  the  Florida  peninsula.  Species  described 
by  Dr.  Baker  from  material  obtained  in  the  liber  investigations  of  the  Department 
ol' Agriculture  in  Florida.  Fig.  2,  PL  II,  is  a  large  false  sisal  plant  idiotograi)hed  at 
the  Government  experimental  factory  on  Kiscayue  Hay. 

SrRUCTUUAL  FiBEH.— From  the  leaves;  2  to  3  feet.  Biscay ne  Bay  and  keys;  '^  to 
4  feet,  Lake  Worth  region.  In  color  very  white,  fine,  soft;  about  lialf  as  strong  as 
sisal  hemp,  from  which  it  is  readily  distinguished  by  its  lighter  color.  An  inferior 
tiber. 

P^CONOMIC  CONSIDERATIONS. — The  importance  of  this  plant  in  the  list  of  vegetable 
fibers  is  due  totbe  fact  that  it  has  so  long  been  confounded  with  the  true  sisal  hemp 
of  Florida,  both  by  the  people  of  Florida  and  by  P.alianiians  who  have  purchased,  or 
otherwise  obtained, 
plants  for  cultivation 
in  the  Iiahainas.  The 
two  forms,  the  false 
and  the  true  sisal,  dif- 
fer so  greatly  in  habit 
and  general  appear- 
ance that  there  should 
be  no  mistaking  them 
when  their  peculiari- 
ties are  known.  A. 
ri<c(j;(ens  throws  out  its 
mass  of  leaves  from  the 
top  of  a  footstalk, 
sometimes  6  feet  high, 
the  leaves  seeming  to 
radiate  like  a  many- 
pointed  star,  while  the 
color  is  always  in 
strong  contrast  to  the 
surrounding  vegeta- 
tion. The  true  sisal 
plant,  on  the  contrary, 
sends  nj)  its  mass  of 
leaves  from  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground, 
though  sometimes 
with  a  very  shwrt  foot- 
stalk, this  difference 
alone  rendering  iden- 
tification easy,  for  before  the  lower  leaves  of  .st8rt7rt//a  have  been  cut,  as  in  cultivation, 
the  plant  never  shows  this  habit.  Other  marked  differences  are:  The  shorter,  nar- 
rower leaf  in  decipiens  nearly  always  (on  the  keys)  rolled  in  at  the  sidessothat  a  cross 
section  appears  like  the  letter  U.  In  color  it  is  a  brighter,  more  livid  green.  Its 
spines,  which  are  very  thickly  set  along  the  edges,  are  strongly  curved,  and  so  sharp 
that  it  is  impossible  to  go  about  among  the  plants  with(mt  lacerating  the  flesh  or 
tearing  the  clothing.  Even  the  young  plants  which  have  not  actiuired  their  footstalks 
differ  so  greatly  from  the  jonng  plants  of  sisalana  that  no  one  should  mistake  them 
after  having  had  the  diiierences  once  pointed  out.  The  young  sisalana  grows  very 
erect,  the  leaves  being  flatter  and  of  a  dark  green,  and  without  spines.  The  fZetyncJiB 
throwsoutitsleaveswith  amorespreadinghabit,  the  lower  series  usually  bent  (recum- 
bent) to  the  ground,  the  leaves  themselves  being  short,  stocky,  and  Avith  the  edges  more 
or  less  turned  up.     Thecolor,  even  in  the  young  plants,  is  a  brighter  green  than  sisaYana, 


^^fcM^-'v  .,«,,,„,_, 


Fio.  9.— An  old  plant  of  A(javo  decipiens. 


46 


USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


the  tout  euseinble  presenting  a  particularly  marked  foi  in  of  plant.  In  their  manner 
of  poling  we  find  the  only  similarity  between  the  two,  and  this  doubtless  has  caused 
the  expensive  mistake  so  often  made  by  those  collecting  sisal  plants,  and  through 
which  ship  loads  have  Ijeeu  taken  from  Florida  to  the  Bahamas  in  past  time.  Dr. 
Baker  even  says :  "  I  can  not  make  out  any  material  difiereuce  between  the  flowers  of 
the  two  species.''  The  poling  is  not  only  similar,  but  the  young  pole  plants  are 
similar,  though  I  soon  learned  to  detect  adifl'ereuce  in  the  stockier  appearance  of  the 
decipiens.  But  when  once  fixed  in  the  soil  the  identity  of  the  sjiecies  is  soon  1)r()ught 
out  in  a  marked  manner.     Fig.  9  is  an  olil  plant  growing  at  I^ake  Worth,  Florida. 

Coming  to  the  fiber,  we  find  the  strongest  mark  of  difference  between  the  two 
forms  of  fiber  plants.  In  decipiens  it  is  whiter,  finer,  softer,  and  greatly  deficient  in 
strength,  though  it  approaches  nearer  the  appearance  of  the  true  sisal  fiber  than 
that  of  any  of  the  allied  Agaves  not  varieties  of  the  A.  ligida  known  commercially. 

A.  decipiens  is  always  most  abundant  in  the  wilds,  as  on  uninhabited  keys,  where 
A.  sisalana  is  never  found.  It  is  a  singular  fact,  however,  that  in  the  Lake  Worth 
region  it  changes  its  form  somewhat,  the  leaves  being  longer  and  often  flattened 
(sometimes  perfectly  flat),  but  always  provided  with  the  iootstalks  and  armed  with 

the  terrible  spines.  For 
further  accounts  see 
Fib.Inv.  Rept.  5,  i).28; 
Kcw  Bull.,  1892,  p.  183. 

*  Specimen  s .  — W  .0.1'^., 
United  States  (jovern- 
ment  exhibit;  Mus.  U. 
S.  Dept.  Ag. ;  Field  Col. 
Mus.,  Chicai^o. 


Agave  deserti. 

This  species,  discov- 
ered by  Lieutenant  Em- 
ory in  1846,  is  found  at 
the  base  of  the  coast 
range  in  San  Diego 
L  County,  Cal.,  extending 

into  the  adjoining  des- 
ert.    (See  fig.  10.) 

STU(CTUi;AT.Fii{r,K.— 
"This  species  has  very 
fibrous  leaves;  is   used 
for  ropes,  mats,  nets,  etc.,  and  even  for  sewing  thread.''     (hr.  V.  Harard.) 

*  Specimens  of  the  fiber,  and  rope  made  from  it  by  the  Californi  i  Indians,  collecteil 
by  Dr.  P^dvaid  Palmer,  are  in  the  U.S.  Nat.  Mus.  Tlie  fiber  is  very  harsh,  but 
strong  and  durable. 

Agave  heteracantha.     Leohuguilla.    Mexican  Fiber. 

Endogen.     ArtiaryUidacew.     Low  aloe-like  leaf  cluster. 

Native  names. — Istle  or  Ixtle  (Mex.);  Tampico  hemp,  the  commercial  name. 

Found  in  Mexico,  southwestern  Texas,  and  southern  California.  "The  various 
plants  from  which  istle  is  extracted  are  found  at  present  chiefiy  on  the  idains  and 
rugged  mountain  slopes  of  the  States  of  Coahuila,  Tamaulipas,  Nuevo  Leon,  and 
San  Luis  Potosi.  The  central  towns  for  the  trade  in  the  several  States  are:  In 
Coahuila,  Saltillo;  in  Nuevo  Leon,  Monterey;  in  Tamaulipas,  .laumava,  Tula,  Tam- 
pico, and  formerly  Matamoras;  in  San  Luis  Potosi,  San  Luis  Potosi."  (Kew  Bull., 
Oct.,  1890.)  Fig.  2,  PI.  I,  represents  a  plant  of  this  species  growing  in  the  United 
States  Botanic  Garden. 

Structural  Fiber.— Derived  from  the  leaves;  stifl",  harsh,  but  pliant,  bristle-like. 


Fig.  10.— Plant  of  Agave  deserti. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE. 


47 


Employed  as  a  substitute  for  aniiual  Itristles  and  for  the  niauufacturc  of  cheap  brushes ; 
length,  18  inches  to  2  feet.  "The  best  known  fiber  plant  of  northern  Mexico  and 
southwestern  Texas.  In  extracting  the  fiber  the  parenchyma  or  pith  squeezed  out 
(40  per  cent  of  the  leaf)  is  a  valuable  substitute  for  soaj),  possessing  remarkable 
cleaning  and  detergent  qualities."     (Dr.  J'.  Harard.) 

Economic  co.nsiukkations. — Until  recently  there  has  been  con8i<lerable  doubt  as 
to  the  identity  of  the  species  of  Agave  from  which  the  istle  of  commerce  is  produced. 
The  common  name  of  the  plant  is  lechuguilla  (or  "lecJiuiilla''),  and  the  writers  upon 
the  subject  usually  refer  to  it  under  this  name.  In  the  report  of 
the  Mexican  Boundary  8ur\ey  the  name  Agave  leduguiUa  appears 
as  the  botanical  designation  of  a  plant  producing  a  coarse  fiber 
employed  in  the  manufacture  of  cordage  and  bagging.  Specimens 
of  this  tiber,  and  brushes  made  from  it,  were  sent  to  tlie  Kew 
Mus.  fourteen  years  ago  by  the  late  Dr.  C.  C.  Parry,  formerly 
botanist  of  this  Department,  and  from  this  and  other  material 
the  identity  of  the  plant,  or  plants,  producing  "tampico  hemp" 
has  been  established.  In  A]ipendix  XXI,  Report  of  the  Chief  of 
Ordnance  for  1883,  there  is  a  report  on  brush  material  and  the 
manufacture  of  brushes,  by  Capt.  A.  L.  Varney,  in  which  appears 
an  account  of  this  fiber,  with  rude  figures.  This  writer,  misled 
by  Squier  in  his  work  on  Tropical  Fibers,  makes  istle  the  prod- 
uct of  Bromelia  sylvestrk.  He  also  produces  a  letter  from  Hon.  J. 
McLeod  Murphy  to  the  De]»artment  of  Agriculture,  who  states 
that  the  average  length  of  the  leaf  is  6  feet.  This  would  indicate 
that  Mr.  Murphy  has  also  been  mistaken  in  the  identity  of  the 
plant,  and  doubtless,  likewise,  has  referred  it  to  Bromelia  sylre.strw. 
The  confusion  is  complicated  by  Spon  (Enc,  pt.  3,  p.  985),  who 
refers  it  to  Nidulnrinni  Karatas,  "Silk  grass,"  Bromelia  sylvesfris 
being  cited  as  an  alternative  name.  Specimens  of  the  plant 
furnishing  the  true  istle  have  been  examined  by  the  writer  from 
difierent  sources  in  the  past  two  years.  The  leaves  have  also  been 
examined  at  T.  Albee  Smith's  establishment  in  Baltimore,  and  they 
have  never  averaged  over  18  inches  in  length.  Mr.  Smith  has  also 
produced  the  fiber  in  quantity  in  Mexico  and  is  familiar  with  the 
plant.  At  the  same  time  there  is  no  doubt  that  several  other  allied 
species  of  Agave  (having  harsh,  bristle-like  fiber)  are  also  employed 
in  obtaining  the  commercial  supply  of  istle.  Mr.  Smith  states, 
however,  that  fully  90  per  cent  of  the  fiber  made  in  Mexico  is  from 
the  species  represented  by  the  leaves  of  ^f .  heteracantha.  For  further 
accounts,  see  JTb.  Inv.  Kept.  5,  j).  38;  Kew  Bull.,  Dec,  1887,  p.  5; 
Idem,  Oct.,  1890,  p.  220.     See  also  Agave  aurea,  this  catalogue. 

*  Sjyecimetis.—W.  C.  E.,  United  States  Government  exhibit  (man- 
ufactures also  shown) ;  Mexican  exhibit,  from  various  localities;  Mus.  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag. 


*- 


FiG.'ll.— A  leaf  of 
Agave  heteracan- 
tha. 


Agave  mexicana. 

This  species  is  also  called  the  maguey,  and  is  said  to  be  one  of  the  Agaves  allied  to 
A.  americana  vfhich  produces  the  li<iuor  caWed pulque  and  the  spirit  known  as  mescaL 
As  its  fiber  bears  a  close  resemblance  to  that  of  the  century  plant,  no  special  mention 
is  necessary,  and  reference  is  made  to  that  species.  The  plant  referred  to  in  Rept.  5, 
Fib.  Inv.  series,  as  A.  mexicana  is  A.  decipiens. 

Agave  morrisii.    The  Keratto  of  Jamaica. 

Fiber.— "Fiber  of  little  strength  and  undesirable;  value  £12  to  £14  per  ton;  it 
is  not  an  even  fiber."     {Idc  <)•  Christie.) 
Economic  considerations. — Has  been  referred  to,  in  West  Indian  sisal  hemp 


48  USEFUL    FIBER   PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

literature,  as  "the  worthless  keratto."  An  atteuipt  was  receutly  made  to  start  a 
fiber  indastry  in  the  Virgin  Islands,  east  of  Puerto  Rico,  with  this  species,  but  with 
unsatisfactory  results. 

"Keratto  is  a  term  widely  used  in  the  West  Indies  in  connection  with  Agave  plants. 
It  is  used  generically  for  the  whole  tribe  of  American  aloes.  'I'he  keratto  of  Jamaica 
is  A.  morrisii  of  Baker.  The  keratto  of  the  Leeward  Islands  is  J.  poli/antha;  what 
the  keratto  of  the  other  islands  is  we  can  not  say.  In  any  case  we  can  not  define 
any  species  by  the  name.  It  only  means  generically  an  Agave  of  some  kind."  {Dr. 
Mon-is. ) 

Agave  potatorum. 

This  species  is  possibly  A.  scolymus. 

The  species,  which  is  niucli  smaller  than  A.  salmiana,  is  em])loyed  in  the  region  of 
Tehuacan  for  making  the  brandy  called  mescal  or  mczcal,  and  for  this  reason  Zuc- 
carini  has  given  to  it  the  name  A.  potatorum.  Many  other  species  of  maguey  are 
likewise  employed  in  the  manufacture  oimeiical,  but  this  species  does  not  generally 
produce  textile  fiber.     {Dr.  Weber.)     See  A.  salmiana. 

Agave  rigida  elongata.     Sisal  Hemp  of  Yucatan.    The  Sacqui 
OR  Sacci  of  Dr.  Perrine. 

Agave  rigida  sisalana.    Sisal  Hemp  of  Florida  and  the  Baha- 
mas.   The  Yashi^ui  or  Yaxoi  of  Dr.  Perrine. 

Endogen.     Amaryllidacea:     Aloe-like  leaf  cluster. 

Native  names. — Henequeii  or  Jenequen  (Yuc.) ;  Sosqnil  (Mex. ) ;  CalntUa  or  Calniya 
(Cent.  Am.). 

Natives  of  Yucatan,  but  found  in  other  portions  of  Mexi(M),  Honduras,  (.'entr.il 
America,  and  distributed  to  the  W^est  Indies  ami  to  the  islands  of  tlie  Caribbean  Sea. 
"Recommended  for  culture  in  Victoria"  (Spon).  The  variety  aisalana  was  intro- 
duce<l  into  Florida  by  Dr.  Perrine  in  1836.  Introduced  into  the  Bahamas  by  C.  Xesbit 
in  1845.  Large  importations  of  Florida  plants  into  the  Bahamas  in  recent  years. 
Fig.  1,  PI.  II,  represents  a  sisal  thicket,  with  plants  in  "pole,''  <tn  Indian  Kej'. 

Stkuctukal  Fiber. — Yellowish  white,  straight,  smooth,  clean.  A  valuable  cord- 
age fiber,  second  only  to  inanila  in  strength.  Does  not  renuire  retting,  and  dries  white 
from  the  machine  when  well  cleaned,  without  washing.  The  Yucatan  fiber  (of  com- 
merce), a  little  coarser  than  the  Florida  fiber.  As  freshly  imported  sometimes  shows 
a  greenish  tinge,  due  to  careless  manipulation.  "The  yaxci  (or  yashqiii),  with  shorter 
leaf  of  bright  velvety  green,  produces  less  fiber,  but  excels  in  softness,  flexibility,  and 
luster,  and  brings  a  higher  price  in  the  market."     {Dr.  Schott.) 

Climate  and  soil. — The  plants  will  not  stand  frost.  Northerly  limit  of  safe  cul- 
tivation in  Florida  the  line  of  27^  north  latitude  running  across  tlie  State.  Possibly 
may  be  grown  a  little  higher  in  the  interior  with  safety.  Fully  matured  plants  will 
stand  one  or  two  degrees  of  frost  without  injury. 

The  majority  of  writers  agree  that  ari<l,  rocky  land  is  suited  to  the  growth  of  the 
plant.  The  soil  of  Yucatan  best  suited  to  this  culture  is  of  a  gravelly,  stony,  and  in 
some  places  of  a  rocky  character,  the  plants  thriving  best  and  yielding  the  largest 
amouTit  of  fiber  in  comparatively  arid  districts  only  a  few  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea.  On  the  other  hand,  moist  or  rich  land  is  considered  unsuitcd  because 
of  the  lesser  yield  of  the  fiber  which  results.  The  plants  thrive  upon  the  Florida 
keys,  Indian  Key  especially,  upon  the  almost  naked  coral  rock,  with  a  luxuriant 
growth,  and  similar  conditions  prevail  in  the  Bahamas  where  plantations  have  been 
established. 

Cultivation. — The  first  consideration  is  the  preparation  of  the  land.  If  hnm- 
niock  growth,  the  timber  is  simply  cleared.     In  other  situations,   and  especially 


UKSCRirTIVE    CATALOGUE. 


49 


where  palmetto  8trul»  occurs,  the  soil  must  bo  cleared  of  these  roots,  there  being 
about  20  cords  of  roots  to  the  acre.  Dr.  Wasliburii,  of  Fort  Myers,  estiuuites  the 
expeuse  of  clearing  the  laud  in  this  maunerat  $25  (see  statements  ujiou  this  subject, 
iu  Fib.  luv.  Rept.  No.  3,  U.  S.  ))ept.  Ag.).  As  sisal  plants  will  not  thrive  when 
even  slightly  shaded,  all  other  growth  should  be  <leared  away. 

riantations  are  established  by  setting  either  suckers  or  "  pole  ])lants."  Suckers  are 
the  shoots  which  spring  from  the  roots  of  old  idauts.  Pole  i)laut8  form  ou  the  blos- 
som stalk  of  old  plants  that  have  Uowered.  (See  lig.  13.)  When  the  old  plant  llowers, 
itseudsupastalk,  or  ''pole," 
as  it  is  called,  to  the  height 
of  15  or  sometimes  20  feet. 
After  the  tulip-shaped  blos- 
soms which  appear  have 
begun  to  wither,  there  starts 
forth  from  the  point  of  con- 
tact with  the  tlower  stalk  a 
bud,  which  develojjS  into  a 
tiny  plant,  which,  when 
grown  to  the  length  of  sev- 
eral inches,  becomes  de- 
tached and  falls  to  the 
ground.  Such  pole  plants 
as  come  in  contact  with  the 
soil  take  root,  and  in  a  very 
short  time  are  large  enough 
to  transplant.  In  the  Ba- 
hamas these  flower  stalk 
plants  are  largely  utilized  in 
establishing  sisal  fields,  and 
with  as  good  results  as 
where  the  suckers  alone  are 
used.  Precisely  the  same 
course  must  be  pursued  in 
Florida.  Such  plants  should 
first  be  set  out  in  the  nurs- 
ery. It  should  be  remem- 
bered that  the  smaller  the 
plants  used  iu  establishing 
a  plantation  the  longer  the 
time  that  must  elapse  be- 
fore leaves  are  sufficieutly 
mature  to  cut  for  liber. 

In  setting  out  plants  in 
Florida,  we  must  be  guided 
by  the  experience  of  other 
countries.  In  the  Bahamas 
650  plants  are  set  to  the  acre 
in   rows    U   feet    by   6  feet  Fig.  12.-Bloss,„„s  of  lalso  ai.salhemi.  plant. 

distant  from  each  other.  ''This  will  give  room  for  the  laborers  to  work  between 
the  rows  without  being  wounded  by  the  terrible  spurs.  Besides,  closer  planting 
would  result  in  the  piercing  of  innumerable  leaves  every  time  tlie  wind  blew,  and 
the  consequent  destruction  of  lil)er.  Stabs  and  bruises  mean  discoloration."  ( Edgar 
Bacon.)  Evidences  of  this  are  seen  in  every  "wild"  sisal  patch  growing  on  the 
Florida  keys. 

The  number  of  plants  usually  set  out  in  an  acre  iu  Yucatan  is  650.     Kows  11  to  12 

12247— No.  9 4 


50 


USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


feet  apart  and  6  feet  apart  iu  the  row;  some  old  fields  9  feet  between  the  rows  and 
4  feet  in  the  row,  tbe  plants  set  Avith  considerable  regularity.  Tbe  ])lants  receive 
two  dressings  the  first  year  and  one  every  year  afterwards. 

The  size  of  the  cultivations  on  the  estates  ran;;e  from  250  to  3,500  acres.  They  are 
laid  out  in  fields  or  sections  of  50  to  200  acres,  and  contain  from  (500  to  'itOO  jdants  to 
tbe  acre.  When  preparing  the  fields,  the  land  is  cut  during  tbe  dry  season,  is  then 
allowed  to  spring  up,  after  which  it  is  ''  sjirig  weeded,"  and  burned  after  the  first  fall 
of  rain.  Tbe  stumps  are  cut  close  to  tbe  ground,  so  as  to  be  out  of  the  way  of  tbe 
leaves  of  tbe  plants  and  to  facilitate  the  running  of  tbe  lino  for  planting  and  get- 
ting tbe  rows  straight.  When  planting,  the  laborers  bavi^  a  small  line  with  tbe  dis- 
tances at  which  tbe  plants  are  to  be  set  out  knotted  on  it  and  a  pole  cut  to  tbe 
length  that  the  rows  are  to  be  apart.  A  man  and  a  boy  are  employed  at  each  line. 
The  boy  drops  the  plants  along  the  row  at  the  distance  marked  on  the  line,  and 
then  removes  the  line  to  the  next  row,  dropping  the  plants  as  before.     The  man  does 

the  planting,  and  is  responsible 
for  the  rows  being  straight. 
When  (oming  to  a  rock  the 
planter  does  not  turn  aside, 
but  goes  on  and  places  the  jilant 
in  th(^  row  a  little  beyond.  (Stu- 
art's Hcport.) 

Mr.  Stuart  states  that  the  hemp 
plantations  in  Yucatan  vary  from 
500  to  28,000  acres  in  extent, 
with  a  total  number  of  105,000 
acres  under  cultivation,  employ- 
ing 12,000  Indian  laborers.  The 
largest  and  best  estates  are  on 
the  rocky,  gravelly  lands,  and 
they  are  valued  from  .isiOOjOOO 
to  $500,000  each.  Each  estate 
is  managed  by  three  princijjal 
men — the  attorney,  the  manager, 
and  assistant  manager.  The 
largest  estates  em))loy  locomo- 
tives for  hauling  iu  tbe  crop  from 
the  fields,  others  using  tramway 
trucks  or  carts  drawn  by  mules 
or  oxen.  Estates  with  less  than  800  acres  under  cultivation  erect  one  Rasjtador  (see 
fig.  16)  for  every  100  acres.     Those  of  1,000  acres  use  the  large  automatic  machines. 

Regarding  the  rate  of  growth  iu  Florida,  a  plant  set  out  at  18  inches  high,  from 
the  nursery,  will  produce  leaves  fit  for  cutting  in  three  years. 

"In  June,  1887,  I  set  out  plants  around  my  house;  these  were  from  (5  to  8  inches 
high.  At  tbe  end  of  the  first  year  small  jdants  began  to  appear  around  the  base, 
which  I  used  for  propagation.  At  two  years  the  leaves  of  the  large  plants  were  2 
feet  8  inches  long  at  tbe  same  time  tbe  longest  leaves  were  3  feet  2  inches  bmg  and 
were  fit  to  commence  cutting.  The  resultof  one  plant  here  of  two  and  one-half  years' 
growth  is  an  average  of  17  young  plants  and  10  leaves  sufficiently  long  to  harvest. 
The  same  plant  iu  its  fourth  year  will  give  a  still  larger  result,  increasing  in  use- 
fulness each  year  until  it  flowers  in  its  eleventh  to  its  thirteenth  year,  which  ends 
the  life  of  tbe  plant."     (Robert  Jia)ison.) 

Mr.  Cleminson,  of  Jupiter,  states  that  the  average  length  of  the  leaf  from  a  4-year- 
old  plant  as  grown  iu  Florida  is  3  feet  3  inches  when  cut,  and  for  three  years  after- 
wards 6  inches  longer  each  year.  Thrifty  plants  7  years  old  will  produce  leaves  5 
feet  in  length. 

"The  length  of  time  required  for  tbe  production    f  ibe  first  cutting  of  leaves  may, 


Fig.  13.— Pole  plants  or  slips,  Agave  gisalana. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE. 


51 


I  think,  safolv  bt 


Fig.  14 Leaves  of  the  true 

sisal  hemp  plant. 


rej^anlcd  as  4  years  from  the  time  of  phintiiif;.  A  great  ileal 
depends  upon  the  siz<'  of  the  phints  when  tninsphinted,  but 
if  they  be  of  a  suitahle  size,  say  from  12  to  15  inches,  with- 
out doubt  the  leaves  will  attain  a  leu:;th  »(  from  1  to  5  feet 
and  bo  fit  to  cut  well  within  the  period  named.  1  have  .seen 
thousands  of  plants  with  leaves  from  2  to  3  feet  long  tiiat 
had  been  growing  only  two  years;  I  have  also  seen  plants 
that,  I  was  told,  were  3  years  old,  from  which  leaves  had 
been  already  cut."     (line's  Report.) 

The  life  of  a  plant  when  undisturbed  is  six  or  seven  years, 
after  which  it  sends  up  its  blossom  stalk  and  then  perishes. 
In  Vucatan  cutting  extends  the  life  of  the  plant  fifteen  to 
twenty  years;  T.  Albee  Smith  says  twenty-five  years. 
No  special  cultivation  is  needed  further  than  to  see  that 
the  laud  is  kept  clean  and  the  suckers  kejit  down.  These 
are  valuable  for  starting  new  plantations. 

Yield  ok  Fibek. — The  annual  yield  of  filler  in  Yucatan 
is  from  1,000  to  1,470  pounds  per  acre;  50  to  70  pounds  of 
fiber  is  <lerived  from  1,000  leaves.     Calculating  S3  leaves  to 
the  plant  as  the  annual  cuttings  from  the 
650  plants  on  an  acre,  the  21,450  loaves  may 
be  said  to  yield  1,287  pounds  of  clean  fiber. 

T.  Albee  Smith  states  that  the  plants  are 
set  out  in  Yucatan  at  the  rate  varying  from 
96  to  140  plants  per  inecate  (one-tenth  of 
an  acre).  The  latter  is  thought  to  bring 
the  best  yield  and  longest  fiber — say  1,400 
plants  per  acre.  The  producer  pays  a  tax  to 
the  State  of  3  cents  per  arroba  (25  pounds), 
which  equals  $2.40  i>er  ton  of  2,000  pounds. 
Ho  has  seen  90  loaves  cleaned  in  live  min- 
utes on  one  wheel  with  two  feeders,  but  says 
that  this  speed  can  not  be  continued.  Oue 
thousand  leaves  of  henequen  weigh  in  the 
rainy  season  160  to  200  arrobas,  in  the  dry 
season,  100  to  IGO  arrobas.  One  thousand 
leaves  average  a  yield  of  55  pounds  of  fiber. 

The  average  weight  of  a  leaf  of  the  Mexi- 
can form  of  plant  is  1  pound,  10  ounces, 
according  to  reliable  authorities.  A  calcu- 
lation based  on  the  above  figures  jilaces  the 
yield  of  dried  fiber  from  2,240  pounds  of 
leaves  at  82  j)ounds  and  a  fraction.  The 
actual  product  of  a  long  ton  of  Indian  Key 
(Florida)  leaves  from  the  duaJaiia  form  as 
determined  by  the  Department's  Florida  ex- 
periments is  about  79  pounds.  The  machine 
made  a  very  considerable  waste,  which, 
after  being  carefully  washed  and  dried, 
gave  a  weight  of  22.i  pounds  from  the  ton 
of  leaves.  This  gi  vcs  a  total  of  very  nearly 
102  pounds  of  straight  fiber  and  waste  from 
a  ton  of  leaves.  Kegarding  the  waste  made 
by  the  Raspador  in  Mexico  no  statements 
can  be  made.     The  average  yield  of  2,000 


Fig.  15.— Leaves 
ofthe  false  sisal 
hemp  plant. 


pounds  of  sisal  leaves  in  the  Bahamas  is  75  pounds,  equivalent  to  83  pounds  to  tlie 


52 


USEPUI^   FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


long  ton.  Wastaj^e  uot  stated.  Dr.  MorriH  reduces  these  yields  to  e(|uivalents, 
inKew  Bull.,  18!)3,  p.  207.  "Highest  possible  yifld  (waste  accounted  for),  4.6  per 
cent;  yield  in  Yucatan  with  the  Kaspador,  3.6  i»er  cent;  in  Florida  (Van  Bureu 
machine),  3.5  per  cent;  iu  Bahamas  (supposed  to  be  Van  Bureu  machine,  C.  R.  1).),  3.7 
per  cent."  Percentage  with  the  automatic  mac  hines  in  i)re8ent  use  in  the  Bahamas, 
unknown.     (See  tigs.  14  and  15,  leaves  of  true  and  false  sisal  hemp.) 

Harvesting  ani>  i-rei-aration. — Little  can  he  said  ou  these  points  from  actual 
experience  in  our  own  country.  The  machinery  used  in  the  (Jovernment  experiments 
in  southern  Florida  was  too  small  and  too  slow  to  give  a  basis  for  estimating  cost  of 
production.     (See  fig.  17,  the  Van  Bui*en  machiue.) 

The  cutting  of  the  leaves  is  done  in  Y'ucatan  by  Indians,  using  a  heavy-bladed, 
saber-like  knife  called  a  machete.  The  task  is  2,000  to  2,500  leaves  per  day.  The 
spine  at  the  leaf  end  is  cut  oft"  and  the  leaves  bundled  for  rt^moval  to  the  machines. 

On  large  plantations  the  leaves 
are  transported  by  steam  power 
over  tramways  running  from 
diH'erent  portions  of  the  estate. 
"Spicimens. — Complete  series 
illustrating  the  (iovernment 
ex])eriments  in  Florida,  Field 
Col.  Mus.;  Mus.  F.  S.  Dept. 
Ag. ;  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus. 

Agave  salmiana.  The 
Maguey  Blando  of 
Mexico. 

Fiber. — Specimens  shown 
in  the  Mexican  exhibit  at  the 
Paris  Exposition  closely  re- 
sembled the  tiberof ./.  irmeri- 
cana  ;  white,  wavy,  of  medium 
strength.  Fiber  from  a  plant 
of  J.  sa^JHioHrt  growing  in  the 
United  States  Botanic  (iarden, 

extracted  by  the  Department,  was  coarse,  harsh,  and  wiry,  without  any  of  the  cliar- 

acteristics  of  Mexican  samples. 
Dr.  Weber,  of  Paris,  informs  me  that  the  maguey,  or  metl,  which  is  cultivated  on 

the  plains  of  Apam  for  the  production  of  ^m?</mc,  bears  in  Mexico  the  name  maguey 

manso  fin 0,  and  is  the  A.  salmiana;  A.  potatorum,  reported  by  Antonio  G.  Cubas, 

being  an  error.     See  -1.  2>otatorum. 
*Specimens. — U.  S.  Nat.  Mus. ;  Mus.  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag. 

Agave  tuberosa.    Cabulla  of  Costa  Rica.    See  Furcrcca. 


Fio.  16.— li<aspador  or  Patmillo  machine  used  in  Mexico. 


Agave  vivipara.    Bastard  Aloe. 

Eudogeu.     AmaryUidacea'.     Aloe-like  leaf  cluster. 
Native  Mexican  name,  Theo-metl;  C/io«ca  of  the  Antilles. 
Flourishes  in  Southern  United  States;  tropical  America;  northwest  provinces  of 
India.     Closely  resembles  A.  liryinica,  also  growing  in  the  United  States. 

Structural  Fiber. — Said  to  be  strong  and  useful.  Known  as  Bombay  aloe  fiber. 
"In  the  jails  a  good  fiber  is  made  from  its  leaves."  {India  Oudh  Gazetteer. )  Used  for 
cordage  and  twine  in  India. 

"(Specimen. — Bot.  Mus.  Harv.  Univ. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE, 


53 


Agave 

A  species  of  Agave  which  has  not  yet  been  itlentitied  waa  found  in  many  portions 
of  southern  Florida.  Fine  specimens  of  the  leaves  hiivo  been  sent  from  the  Indian 
River  region  bj'  Mr.  McCarthy,  who  states  that  the  plant  is  connnon  in  that  section. 
I  have  myself  seen  it  growing  at  Jupiter,  at  Lake  Worth,  and  at  other  ])oints  on  the 
mainland  to  the  southward  as  far  as  the  Perrine  grant,  but  do  not  recall  a  specimen 
on  any  of  the  keys.  The  mature  leaves  measure  5  feet  or  more  in  length,  8  to  10 
inches  in  breadth,  and  will  weigh  8  pounds  or  more.  The  serrations  on  the  edges 
are  Aery  line  and  close  set,  the  terminal  spine  being  present.  The  color  of  the  leaf 
is  a  light  bluish  green.     (See  fig.  18). 

Fig.  1,  PI.  Ill,  shows  several  young  plants  of  this  species  found  on  Addison's  phice, 
Perrine  grant,  in  southern  Florida. 

A  (juantity  of  small  leaves  of  this  species  were  run  through  the  machine  at  Cocoa- 
nut  Grove,  but  owing  to  the  thickness  of  the  butts  it  was  necessary  to  split  each 


Fio.  17.— The  V,an  Buren  niacliine,  used  in  the  experiments  of  the  Department  in  Florida. 

leaf  into  four  pieces  and  crush  the  butts  with  a  mallet.  The  fiber  is  similar  to  that 
of  A.  americaiia  in  every  respect,  crinkly,  elastic,  and  very  white.  A  sufficient 
(|uantity  of  the  fiber  was  secured  for  exhition  purposes,  but  not  enough  for  test  in 
manufacture.  See  The  Agaves  of  the  United  States,  by  A.  Isalxd  Mulford,  St.  Louis, 
1896,  and  Kept.  No.  :>,  Fib.  Inv.  series,  p.  38 

'  Specimens.— Field  Col.  Mus. ;  Mus.  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag. 

Agbari-ettu  (Afr.).     See  Alafia. 

Aguaje  (Peru).     See  Mauritia  flexuosa. 

Agust,  Agusta,  Agasti.     East  Iiidiiui  names  of  Sesbama  yrandiftora. 

Agotai  (Pliil.  Is.).     See  Mum  textilis. 

Akaroa  (New  Zea.).    Flagianthus  betulinus. 


54 


USEFUL    FIBER   PLANTS    OF   THE   WORLD. 


Ake-iri  (Yorubaland).     See  Urena  lohata. 
Akia  (Hawaii).     Wiksfroemia  virkUflora. 
Akpako  (Yorubaland).     Raphia  vinifera. 
Alfa  (Alg-.).     See  Stipa  tenacis-sima. 
Alafia  sp. 

This  creeper  grows  wild,  Yorubaland,  west  Africa,  where  it  is  called  Afihari-cttu  ; 
species  not  ideutified. 

Bast  Fiber. — The   stems   are   used   to   make   a  coarse  roj)e  for  tyiug  rafters,   iu 

house  construction.     (Kew  Bull.,  185)1,  p.  208.) 

Albardine  (Alg.).     SeeLygeum  sparfum. 
Algae.     See  Seaweeds. 
Albero  (Tt.)  =  Tree. 

del  pane,  Artocarpus  incisa; della  seta, 

AscJepias  frulicosa  (now  Comjthocarpim  frutiioniin). 

Algodon  (Sp.).     See  GoHsypiiim. 
Ali  (Iiid.).     See  Linum  ufiitatinsimum. 
AUaeanthus  zeylanicus. 

Kxogen.      I'tt'tcarcd'.     A  tree. 

Native  of  Ceylon,  1.000  to  2,000  feet  elevation, 
where  the  plant  is  known  as  Allandoo-fi<(s. 

FlBEii. — The  inner  liark  furnishes  a  very  tongh 
fiber,  employed  in  many  native  uses. 

Allandoo-gas.    See  A  Jhca  nth  us  zri/la  n  icv.s. 
Aln  kabel  (Ceyl.).     See  Musa  Hapientum. 

Alnus  nitida. 

Exogeu.     Bvtiilucece.     A  large  tree. 
Nativk  Indian  names. — Shral,  sarali,  etc. 
Found  in  the  Himalayas,  1,000  to  Jt,000  feet  ele- 
vation; principal  value  for  dyeing  and  tanning. 

Fiber. — The  natives  employ  the  young  twigs  iu 
rope  bridges  and  for  tying  loads,  etc. ;  also  used  for 
making  baskets.  (Die.  Ec.  Prod.  Ind.,  Vol.  I,  p, 
177.) 

Alocasia  macrorrhiza.     See  A  rum . 

Aloe. 


Fig.  18.- 


-  Leaves  of  Florida  Agave  (spe- 
cies unidentified). 


The  American 


Agave  anicricaua 


lace,  the  Lace  of  Fayal  made  from  this  spe<'ies ;  tiie 
Bastard ,  or  False ,  ./.  ririptrn  ;  — — — 

leaved  Adam's  needle,  Yucca  aloifolia.     Savorgnan  gives boemica  as  a  common 

Italian  name  of  J.  avuricana.     See  also  Aloe  vera. 

Aloes. 

The  name  is  usually  applied  to  the  bitter  extract  from  the  leaves  of  certain  species 

of  Aloe,  valued  in  pharmacy.     Barbados  and  Indian ,  Aloe  vera.     Also  a]>plied 

to  fiber  plants ,  veri,  Furcraa  gigautea;  the  word  is  used  by  tlie  French  to  des- 
ignate .li/aie  amerkaHa,  though  Bernardiu  states  that  it  is  a  French  generic  term 
applied  to  the  Agaves  generally. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  55 

Aloe  vera.    Barbados  Aloks.     Indian  Aloes. 

Endogeu.     LUiacbw.     Rosette  of  thick  leaves  with  central  tlower  stalk. 
Native  Indian  namks. — Chi-karar,  Ghirta-l'umari,  auil  many  others. 

The  plant  is  said  to  be  a  native  of  northern  Africa,  Canary  Isles,  and  southern 
Spain,  and  its  many  varieties  have  been  introdnced  into  all  tropical  <  onutries. 
Cultivated  in  the  West  Indies,  Barbados,  and  Antigua.  Grows  generally  in  India, 
and  in  sonth  India  has  escaped  from  cnltivation. 

Structural  Fiber. — While  the  plant  is  grown  for  itsmedicinal  qnalities,  the  leaves 
contain  a  good  fiber  which  could  be  utilized,  as  the  leaves  are  of  no  further  use  after 
the  juice  has  been  extracted.  This  fiber  should  not  be  confounded  with  the  Aloe 
fiber  of  commerce  derived  from  A(jare  americana. 

"Specimens  of  fiber  from  J.  indica  were  exhibited  in  the  Indian  department  at  the 
W.  C.  E.,  1893,  Chicago. 

Alsi  (Hiud.).     Linum  usitaUssimum. 

Althaea  cannabina. 

Exogen.     Malracew    A  shrub. 

This  species  is  found  in  southern  Eurojye — Spain  and  Italy — and  is  also  indigeuoiis 
to  southern  Russia,  Hungary,  and  the  Caucasus.  In  Italy  it  is  known  as  Canapa 
salvatica,  or  wild  hemp. 

Fiber. — The  bast  is  said  by  Savorgnau  to  yield  a  fiber  in  Spain  that  is  employed 
"for  very  fine  cloth."    Enumerated  in  Bernardin's  catalogue  as  a  fiber  plant. 

Althaea  rosea.    The  Hollyhock. 

This  species  of  Malvace;e,  which  is  the  origin  of  the  common  hollyhock,  grows 
wild  in  China  and  also  southern  Europe.  It  is  similar  to  the  common  marsh  mallow, 
A.  officinalis. 

Bast  Fiber. — A  sample  of  its  fiber  of  good  length,  experimentally  prepared  liy 
Henry  Koenig,  a  Missouri  correspondent,  was  recently  sent  to  the  Department.  The 
fiber  is  bright  in  color,  a  light  straw,  but  exhibits  only  medium  strength ;  would  be  a 
poor  jute  substitute. 

"*  Specimen. — Mus.  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag. 

Alva  marina.     See  Zostera. 

Ambada  (Intl.).     See  Hibiscus  cannahinus. 

American  Aloe.     Agave  americana. 

Amole  (U.  S.).     Chlorogalum  pomeridianum  and  other  i)laijts  us(mT  for 

soap. 
Ambari  hemp  (Ind.).     See  HiMscus  cannahinus. 
Ambrosia  trifida.    Tall  Eagweed. 

Exogen.     ComposUa:     A  coarse  annual  weed. 

The  species  of  this  genus  are  found  in  North  and  South  America,  tropical  India, 
and  Africa,  growing  in  waste  places. 

Bast  Fiber.— Dr.  Havard  states  that  the  fiber  of  the  tall,  stout  stems  of  the  rag- 
weed were  formerly  utilized  by  Indians  to  make  strings  and  to]u'h. 

Ammophila  arenaria.    Beach  Grass. 

Syn.  rsamma  armaria,  Ammophila  arundinacea. 
Endogen.     Graminea'.     A  sea  reed  or  grass. 

Common  names. — Marram,  maritm,  sea  reed,  sea  matweed,  beach  grass,   bent 
grass,  etc. 
Habitat:  Temperate  North  America,  Europe,  northern  Africa,  and  introduced  into 


56 


USEFUL   FIBER   PLATSTTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


Australia.  A.  arenaria  is  native  along  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  I'^nitcd  States  and 
also  on  the  coasts  of  western  Euroiie.  It  was  introduced  into  Australia  from  Hol- 
land, and  its  Dutch  name  "  Marram  grass"  was  taken  with  it.  It  is  known  in  this 
country  and  in  most  places  in  England  as  "  beach  grass  "  and  sea-sand  grass.  It 
is  one  of  the  most  A^aluable  of  the  grasses  adapted  to  binding  the  drifting  sands 
of  onr  coasts,  and  has  been  cultivated  for  this  purpose  in  this  as  well  as  i:i  other 
countries.  The  action  of  tliis  grass  in  holding  the  drifting  sands  is  like  that  of 
brush  or  bushes  cnt  and  laid  n])on  the  ground  in  accuminulating  snow  when  drifted 
by  the  wind.  The  sand  collects  around  tlie  clnmiis  of  grass,  and  as  it  accumulates 
the  grass  grows  up  and  overtops  it,  and  will  so  continue  to  grow,  no  matter  how 
high  the  sand  liill  nuiy  rise.  A  plant  Avill,  by  gradual  up-growth,  (uially  form  stems 
and  roots  saurled  in  to  the  depth  of  fully  100  feet,  ilany  years  ago  it  was  as  cus- 
tomary to  warn  the  iuliabitants  of  Truro  and  some  other  towns 
"U  Capo  Cod  to  turn  out  to  ]daiit  marram  grass  as  it  was  in  the 
inland  towns  to  turn  out  and  mend  the  roatls.  This  was  re- 
([uired  by  law,  with  suitable  penalties  for  its  neglect,  and  took 
])la<e  in  Apiil.  Marram  grass  is  best  propagated  by  trans- 
jdanting,  the  grass  being  pulled  by  liand  and  set  in  a  hole 
about  a  foot  decji  and  the  sand  pressed  about  it.  (Scrilmer.) 
It  is  also  used  in  Eastern  countries  and  in  Holland  for  binding 
the  sands  upon  the  coast  and  i)rcser\  ing  them  from  the  inroads 
of  the  sea.     (See  fig.  11»)- 

Sthuctuual  FiiiEU.— In  the  norlh  of  England  the  grass  is 
said  to  be  used  for  table  mats  and  basket  work.  Spon  says 
that  its  fiber  is  used  for  pa])er  making,  matting,  and  agricul- 
tural tie  bands;  also  employed  as  thatch  material.  Its  liber 
is  not  used  in  the  United  States. 
!^prcimrns. — U.  S.  Nat.  Herb. 

Amomum  magnificum. 

Endogen.     Zitif/iberaceo'.     Herb. 
A  genus  of  aromatic  herbs.     The  species  is  found  in  Mauritius 
"From  the  very  fine  liber  of  the  leaves  textures  ile  luxe  are 
made"  (Manual  Hoepli). 

Ainpelodesnia  tenax.     J)iss. 

JCndogen.     (iramitiea . 
The  plant  grows  wild  on  the  Algerian  coast,  and  is  said  to 

produce  84  per  cent  of  fiber,  with  an  average  length  of  .">  feet. 

One  of  the  plants  often  confounded  with  Stipa  Irnachsima,  as 

it  grows  wild  in  the  regions  where  the  true  esparto  abounds. 

In  the  Kew  Mns.  are  shown  examples  of  rope  from  the  (lis8 
made  in  Genoa.  lias  been  im])orted  into  Sicily  for  paper  making.  Nets  from  .im- 
pelodcama  tenax  have  been  used  on  the  Tuscan  coast  in  the  tunney  fishery.  Tlie  nets 
are  very  durable  if  kept  in  water  and  protected  from  the  action  of  the  sun."  (Off. 
Guide  Kew  Mus.) 


riu.l9. — Murrain  gras 
Ammophila  arenaria 


Amsonia  taberncemontana. 

Exogeu.     Aporiinavcii .     Herb. 
A  genus  of  J  oooynaceo' with  five  species,  natives  of  North  America.     The  si)e(ies 
named  has  been  received  from  Mr.  S.  S.  Boyce,  of  Rolling  Fork,  Miss.,  who  regards 
it  as  a  promising  liber  plant. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE,  57 

Anadendrum  sp. 

Kndogeu.     Aracea'. 

Native  name. — Audamau  Islands,  Yolha. 
FiHEH. — From  the  bark  ;  usod  for  liowstriiij^s  and  netted  reticules  carried  by  the 
women. 

Ananas  sativa.     Pineapple. 

Endogon.     Bromeliacew.     Aloe-like  leaf  cluster. 

Native  NAMES. — Ananas  {Yr.)]  Vina  (Eastern  Archipelago);  ^ na jmas  (Beng.); 
Aainunnas  (Arab,  and  Pers.) ;  Po-lo-Ma  (China,). 

Native  of  tropical  America,  probably  Brazil,  and  distributed  over  southern  Europe, 
and  tropical  Asia  and  Africa.  In  the  United  States  chietly  cultivated  for  its  fruit 
in  subtropical  Florida.  Dr.  Morris  informs  me  that  the  Crowia  of  British  (iuiana,  a 
plant  (if  which  is  growing  at  Kew,  has  been  determined  to  be  a  wild  form  of  the  com- 
mon pineapple.  The  term  silk  grass,  sometimes  applied  to  its  fiber,  is  meaningless 
and  a  misnomer.  See  Crowia  in  the  alphabetical  arrangement.  Fig.  2,  PI.  Ill,  shows 
the  pineapple  plant  in  cultivation. 

Structural  Fiber. — "Both  the  wild  and  cultivated  pineapple  yield  fibers  which, 
when  spun,  surpass  in  strength,  fineness,  and  luster  those  obtained  from  fiax;  can  be 
employed  as  a  substitute  for  silk,  and  as  a  material  for  mixing  with  wool  or  cotton." 
(  Wait.)  Useful  for  cordage,  textile  fabrics,  sewing  silk  or  twist,  laces,  etc.  In 
China  fabrics  for  clothing  of  agriculturists.  In  request  in  India  as  material  for  string- 
ing necklaces.  Produces  the  celebrated  j>i/7a  cloth  of  the  Philippine  Islands.  "It  is 
remai'kably  durable,  and  unaffected  by  immersion  in  water;  and  is  white,  soft,  silky, 
fiexiblo,  and  long  in  staple."  (Spon.)  Samples  cleaned,  without  washing,  in  the 
Government  experiments  in  Plorida",  1892,  when  twisted  to  the  size  of  binding  twine, 
showed  a  l>reakage  strain  of  150  pounds.  Dr.  Taylor  subdivided  a  specimen  of  this 
fiber  to  one  ten-thousandth  of  an  inch. 

Economic  coxsideratioxs. — Pineapple  culture,  for  its  fruit,  in  Florida  is  a  com- 
paratively recent  industry,  the  first  plantings  having  been  made  on  the  keys  about 
1886,  though  the  first  plantation  of  commercial  importance  was  not  established  until 
fifteen  years  later,  on  the  Indian  Kiver.  The  value  of  the  fiber  has  loug  been  known, 
however,  and  in  1891  the  fiber  expert  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
began  a  series  of  investigations  into  the  practicability  of  utilizing  the  I'lorida  leaves 
for  fiber  after  the  fruit  has  been  gathered,  as  their  utilizatio:i  would  give  to  the 
United  States  a  new  industry.  In  the  experiments  of  1892  it  was  shown  that  the 
yield  of  fiber  from  freshly  cut  pineapple  leaves  ranges  from  45  to  (JO  pounds  per  ton 
of  2,240  pounds  of  leaves.  An  importaut  point  to  be  noted  is  the  fact  that  selected 
leaves,  as  to  size,  do  not  give  as  high  a  yield  of  fiber  as  average  leaves.  Lot  No.  1 
was  820  pounds  of  average  leaves  and  202  pounds  of  selected.  While  the  total  1,022 
pounds  of  leaves  gave  25  pounds  of  fiber,  tlie  820  pounds  gave  21  pounds  of  fiber 
against  a  yield  of  4  pounds  from  202  pounds  of  leaves.  Reduced  to  e<iuivalents,  the 
average  leaves  yielded  at  the  rate  of  57i  pounds  to  the  ton,  while  the  selected  leaves 
yielded  less  than  44A  pounds  of  fiber  to  the  ton. 

Lot  No.  5  was  from  Fuzzard's  plantation,  near  the  Perriue  grant,  1,000  pounds  of 
leaves,  tips  cut  off.  The  leaves  averaged  10  to  the  pound.  Dry  fiber  from  this 
1,000  pounds  weighed  18  jjounds,  2  ounces,  or  a  little  over  40  pounds  to  the  ton  of 
leaves.  It  should  also  be  uoted  that  there  was  an  excessive  waste  of  fiber  in  the 
process  of  cleaning. 

Special  Agent  Monroe,  who  attended  to  the  details  of  the  exi)erimental  work  of 
1892  in  Florida,  stated  that  the  practice  has  been  to  allow  the  leaves  to  decay  under 
the  plant  and  afford  possible  nourishment  to  the  young  suckers.  The  general  opin- 
ion on  this  point  is  in  favor  of  cutting  the  leaves,  but  experiments  covering  several 
seasons  will  be  necessary  to  properly  decide  this  point.  Owing  to  the  practice  on 
the  keys  of  planting  very  close,  it  was  found  that  a  large  proportion  of  the  leaves 


58  USEFUL    FIBER    PLATTTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

were  injured  l)y  chafing  one  on  another,  and  also  from  being  crushed  under  foot  in 
weeding  and  catting  the  fruit.  This  condition  seems  to  be  almost  entirely  obviated 
by  spacing  the  plants  afc  least  2  feet,  .as  has  been  done  on  the  mainland.  Another 
defect  was  found  in  the  withered  condition  of  several  inches  of  the  tip  or  end,  not 
noticeable  in  the  younger  leaves.  This,  however,  nuiy  have  been  due  to  the  excessive 
drought  of  the  season.  It  does  not  occasion  much  loss  of  fiber,  but  adds  to  the  cost 
of  extraction,  the  decayed  parts  having  to  be  cut  otF.  The  approximate  acreage  in 
pineapples  in  1892  on  keys  Metaeomba,  Largo,  and  Elliott's  was  930,  and  the  num- 
ber of  apples  shipped  (1892)  about  1,916,400,  which  did  not  include  many  thousands 
marketed  after  the  close  of  the  season. 

The  average  yield  of  good  leaves  from  the  Red  Si)ani8h  was  about  10  out  of  the 
average  25  of  each  plant,  and  the  weight  1  pound,  making  the  total  for  fruited  jjlants, 
in  round  numbers,  958  tons.  Adding  the  leaves  to  be  secured  after  the  close  of  the 
season  and  from  abandoned  fields,  the  quantity  might  be  raised  to  1,000  or  1,100 
tons.  This  refers,  of  course,  to  extreme  southern  Florida,  no  account  having  been 
taken  of  the  large  acreage  on  Indian  River  and  elsewhere. 

As  to  the  value  of  the  fiber,  a  London  quotation  for  a  lot  of  Avell  cleaned  from  an 
Asiatic  source  was  $150  per  ton.  There  is  no  doubt  that  if  the  fiber  could  be  pro- 
duced in  (juantity  at  an  economical  cost,  manufacturers  would  soon  find  a  use  for  it 
and  would  know  what  price  they  could  afford  to  ])ay  for  it.  The  market  price 
would  then  be  fixed  by  the  demand  and  su|)ply.  The  machine  question  enters 
largelj'  into  the  ]»roblem,  however,  and  as  the  leaves  are  small  a  quantity  would 
need  to  be  cleaned  at  one  feeding  of  the  machine  to  nuike  it  pay.  Estimating  10 
leaves  to  the  pound,  there  would  be  over  22,000  leaves  to  the  ton,  Avhich,  as  We 
haA^e  seen,  would  ])roduce  from  50  to  60  pounds  of  fiber. 

The  machine  used  in  the  Department  experiments  produced  a  fine  product,  but  in 
too  small  quantity  to  be  employed  commercially.  There  is  no  doubt  that  a  modified 
sisal  hemp  ma<-hine  (automatic)  would  do  the  work,  although  a  machine  has  recently 
been  constructed  for  all  small-leaved  plants  th.at  may  be  adajited  to  use  in  extract- 
ing this  fiber.     .See  Appendix  A. 

The  Chinese  extract  the  fiber  by  hand.  "The  first  step  is  the  removal  of  the 
fleshy  sides  of  the  leaf  A  man  sitting  astride  a  narrow  stool  extends  on  it  in  front 
of  him  a  single  leaf,  one  end  of  which  is  held  beneath  him.  He  then,  with  a  kind  of 
two-handled  bamboo  plane,  removes  the  succulent  matter.  Another  man  receives 
the  leaves  as  they  are  planed,  and  with  his  thumb  nail  loosens  the  fibers  about  the 
middle  of  the  leaf,  gathers  them  in  his  hand,  and  by  one  efi'ort  detaches  them  from 
the  outer  skin.  The  fibers  aie  next  steeped  in  water,  washed,  and  laid  out  to  dry 
and  bleach  on  rude  frames  of  split  bamboo.  The  processes  of  steeping,  washing,  and 
exposing  to  the  son  are  repeated  until  the  fibers  are  consider(!<l  proiterly  bleached. 
In  the  Philippines  the  blunt  end  of  a  jiotsherd  is  used  and  the  fiber  is  carefully 
combed  and  sorted  into  four  classes."     (Spon.) 

The  Chinese  fiber  is  manufactured  into  a  strong,  coarse  fabric  resembling  the 
coarser  kinds  of  grass  cloth.  In  Formosa  its  chief  use  is  for  the  inner  garments  of 
the  agricultural  class.  The  fabric  is  called  Jluanfi-li-Pu.  I'iua  is  considered  to  be 
more  delicate  in  texture  than  any  other  known  to  the  vegetable  kingdom.  It  is 
woven  from  the  untwisted  fibers  of  the  pineapple  leaf  after  reducing  theui  to  extreme 
fineness  and  alter  the  ends  have  been  glued  together  to  form  a  continuous  thread. 
There  is  another  delicate  fabric,  used  for  ladies'  dresses,  which  is  said  to  be  manu- 
factured from  i)inea])ple  fiber  woven  with  silk,  the  latter  forming  lustrous  stripes  in 
soft  colors  or  shades. 

The  pineapple  cloth  of  the  Philippines  is  produced  by  the  common  piueai)p]e  also, 
i.  e.,  Jiiaiins  satira.  The  plants  have  become  ahuost  wild  in  Singapore  and  the  Phil- 
ippines, with  leaA^es  5  to  6  feet  long.  The  fruit  is  small,  but  the  leaves  appear  to 
yield  better  liber  than  the  cultivated  plants.     {Dr.  Morris.) 

Further  accounts  of  the  fiber  will  be  found  in  the  Ann.  Rept.  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag.,  1879, 
p.  542;  Fib.Inv.  Rept.  No.5,p.44;  Kew  Bull.,  1X87,  p.  8:  Jan..  1880,  p.  27;  Oct.,  Nov., 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  59 

1891,  p.  251;  Spon.  Enc,  pt.  3,  p.  917;  Die.  Ec.  Prod.  Ind.,  Vol,  I,  p.  236;  Rovle, 
Fib.  PL  of  Ind.,  p.  38. 

*  Specimens.— Fiher,  IT.  S.  Nat.  Mns. ;  Mus.  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag. ;  Field  Col,  Mns. ;  cloth, 
Bot.  Mus.  Harv.  Univ. 

Ananas  bracteatus. 

Syn.  Bromelia  sagenaria. 
A  South  American  species,  from  which  a  good  fiber  has  been  extracted,  called  Gra- 
Wrt//irt  liy  Savorguan;  though   IJernardin  states  that  Graivatha  \s  Bromelia  medicalis. 

Ancient  fibers.     See  Introduction. 

Andromachia  igniaria.     See  Liahum  igniarium. 

Andropogon  gryllus.     See  Chrysopof/o7i. 

Andropogon  schcenanthus.     EusA  or  Ginger  Grass  of  India. 

This  species  yields  an  oil  which  is  used  in  European  Turkey  to  adulterate  attar  of 
roses.     It  abounds  in  tropical  and  subtropical  Asia  and  Africa. 

Structural  Fiber.  — Specimens  of  this  grass  are  preserved  in  the  Mus.  U.  S. 
Dept.  Ag.  It  is  described  in  India  as  a  tall  grass,  too  coarse  to  stack,  but  used  for 
thatching  and  for  screens. 

Andropogon  sorghum  vulgaris.     Broom  Corn. 

Endogen.     Gramineiv.     A  giant  grass. 

Cultivated  in  many  iiarts  of  the  world.  Andrnpoijon  sorghum  includes  many  varie- 
ties, a  number  of  which  have  been  recognized  by  some  authors  iis  distinct  botanical 
species  under  the  genus  Sonjlinm;  others,  including  Hackel,  have  referred  them  all 
to  the  genus  Andropo<jou.  The  same  name  has  been  applied  to  difi'erent  varieties, 
and  the  same  variety  has  often  been  designated  under  ^arious  names.  All  the  forms 
are  of  Eastern  origin,  and  have  arisen  probably  from  a  common  stock  through  ages 
of  cultivation.  From  varieties  of  this  species  are  obtained  grain,  which  furnishes 
nutritious  food  for  man  and  domestic  animals,  particularly  poultry;  sirup  and  sugar 
ill  commercial  quantities  are  obtained  from  the  saccharine  A'arieties.  The  variety 
saccharatus,  or  Chinese  sugar  grass,  yields  about  13  per  cent  of  sugar,  and  all  furnish 
fodder  of  more  or  less  value  for  farm  stock.  In  Africa  alcoholic  drinks  are  jirepared 
from  the  grains,  and  useful  coloring  pigments  are  contained  in  the  fruiting  glumes. 

V/hile  this  is  not,  strickly  speaking,  a  liber  plant,  it  yields  a  T)rush  material  and  is 
therefore  included  in  this  list.  The  statements  which  follow  are  extracted  from  Cir- 
cular No.  28,  OfiSce  of  Experiment  Stations,  United  States  Deiiartinent  Agriculture: 

Broom  corn,  as  is  well  known,  resembles  sorghum  in  appearance,  both  plants  being 
varieties  of  the  same  species.  Broom  corn  usually  grows  8  to  12  feet  high,  though 
the  dwarf  variety  attains  only  half  that  height.  The  chief  economic  difference 
between  broom  corn  and  other  varieties  of  sorghum  consists  in  the  greater  length, 
strength,  and  straightness  of  the  fine  stems  composing  the  head,  or  panicle,  and  sup- 
porting the  seeds.  The  longer,  straighter,  and  tougher  these  stems  or  straws  and 
the  greener  their  color  aft«r  curing,  the  higlier  the  price  the  product  commands. 
The  different  varieties  of  broom  corn  attord  dissimlar  products.  The  dwarf  variety 
produces  the  short  brush  used  in  the  manufacture  of  small  brooms  and  whisks.  It 
is  somewhat  difficult  to  harvest  and  is  cultivated  only  to  a  limited  extent.  Of  the 
large  varieties  the  Evergreen,  known  also  as  the  Missouri  or  Tennessee  Evergreen, 
has  given  general  satisfaction.  The  Mohawk  is  regarded  as  earlier,  but  as  affording 
a  smaller  yield.  There  is  some  advantage  in  planting  more  than  one  variety  and  at 
several  different  dates  so  as  to  extend  through  a  long  seasoTi  the  time  of  harvesting. 

CULTURK. — A  climate  suitable  for  Indian  corn  is  also  adapted  to  tlie  growth  of  the 
broom-corn  plant.  Dry  weather  at  harvesting  time  is  a  favorable  climatic  condi- 
tion.    A  well-drained,  rich,  san«ly  or  gravelly  loam  soil  such  .as  will  produce  a  heavy 


60  USEFUL    FIBER   PLANTS    OF    THE   WORLD. 

yield  of  Indian  corn,  and  is  as  free  as  possible  from  weeds,  is  best  for  broom  corn.  If 
the  soil  is  not  fertile,  i  t  should  be  liberally  manured.  The  seed  tan  be  planted  almost 
as  e;irly  as  corn.  Only  mature  seed  should  be  used,  and  it  may  be  planted  in  hills 
or  drills,  although  drill  culture  is  generally  recommended.  The  rows  should  be  3  to 
4  feet  apart,  and  sufficient  seed  should  be  planted  to  iusure  three  to  five  stalks  every 
15  or  18  inches  in  the  row ;  or  the  seed  may  be  drilled  thinly  so  as  to  leave  one  stalk 
every  3  or  4  inches.  The  cultivation  of  broom  corn  is  similar  to  that  given  to  corn 
or  sorghum.  The  early  growth  of  the  plant  is  slow,  hence  the  need  of  prouqit  and 
frequent  shallow  cultivation  to  keep  the  weeds  iu  subjection  and  to  maintain  a  thin 
layer  of  loose  soil  on  the  surface. 

Harvestixo. — The  chief  difficulty  euconntcred  by  the  novice  in  broom-corn  cul- 
ture is  in  deterniiuing  when  to  harvest  the  l>rnsh.  Even  experienced  growers  are 
not  uunninions  on  this  point,  some  cutting  the  heads  while  in  blossom,  and  otiiers 
harvesting  later  so  as  to  obtain  better  dev6lo])ed  seeds  possessing  considerable  nutri- 
tive value.  The  time  geucrallj'  preferred  is  just  after  the  fall  of  the  .so-called 
"blossom"  (anthers).  A  common  custom  with  tall  varieties  at  time  of  harvesting 
is  to  bend  down  the  stalks  of  two  rows  diagonally  toward  each  other  iu  such  man- 
ner that  the  bent  parts  support  each  other  in  a  nearly  horizontal  position.  The 
stalks  of  one  row  cross  diagonally  those  of  the  other  .iml  form  a  y>l;itfoiin  or  "  talile." 
The  break,  or  rather  the  sharp  bend,  in  the  stalk  is  made  about  2h  or  3  feet  above  the 
ground.  The  brush  borne  on  one  row  j)rojccts  over  and  beyond  the  other  row  in  a 
position  convenient  for  the  cutter,  avIio  follows  immediately.  'I'he  heads  \^th  5 
inches  of  stalk  are  laid  on  the  lable,  or  ]ilatforni,  until  they  can  be  removed  to  a  <lry- 
ing  shed.  Cutting  while  the  i)lant8  are  wet  with  dew  or  rain  should  be  a\oided. 
The  brnsh  of  the  dwarf  variety  is  pulled  out,  not  cut.  If  the  season  is  dry  as  the 
corn  approaches  maturity  the  brush  renmiis  striiight,  but  if  the  weather  is  hot  and 
damp  at  this  pt-riod  the  straws  are  likely  to  bend  and  to  form  crooked  brnsh.  In 
harvesting  and  in  curing  great  pains  are  taken  to  keep  the  brush  straight.  Crooked 
or  targ]ed  brnsh  is  carefully  sorted  out.  From  the  field  the  brush  is  taken  to  the 
scrapers,  which  remove  the  seed.  Large  grow<  rs  of  broom  corn  employ  special 
scraping  machines,  consisting  of  one  or  two  cylinders  provided  with  ir<  n  teeth  and 
usually  driven  by  horsepower.  The  most  complete  scrapers  are  provided  with  an 
automatic  feeding  arrangement.  With  cheaper  machines  the  operator  h<dd8  the 
seed  end  of  a  handful  of  brush  against  the  cyliinlers  until  the  seeds  are  removed. 
It  is  stated  that  the  ordinary  threshing  machine,  with  concave  removed,  has  been 
used  in  a  similar  manner.  For  .small  <;uantities  of  brush  a  long-toothed  currycomb, 
or  a  wooden  comb  made  by  sawing  teeth  in  a  plank  has  been  used.  The  brush 
should  be  cured  in  the  shade,  as  exposure  to  sun  or  moisture  injures  its  color  and 
strength.  I'ree  circulation  of  air  i-i  necessary  in  this  process.  Hence,  when  large 
quantities  are  to  I)e  cured  special  curing  houses  tiioronghly  ventilated  mid  provided 
with  racks  made  of  narrow  planks  and  laths  are  constructed.  On  these  racks  layers 
of  brush  3  inches  thick  are  laid.  Curing  is  continued  until  the  brush  will  not  heat 
when  bulked  or  baled.  When  curing  the  brnsh  is  ])re8sed  into  bales,  usually  46  by 
30  by  24  inches  and  weighing  about  300  pounds.  The  butts  are  placed  evenly  at  the 
ends  of  the  bale,  and  the  pieces  of  "brush  "  lap  in  the  middle. 

Foreign  uses. — The  Venetian  whisks  of  Italy  are  made  from  this  species,  which 
is  employed  in  all  civilized  countries  for  similar  use,  and  for  the  manufacture  of 
brooms  iind  lirushes. 

Andropogon  squarrosus.     The  Cuscus,  Khuh  Khus,  or  Koosa. 

Endogen.     Gramineiv.     Perennial  grass,  8  to  10  feet. 

Common  and  native    names. —  Vctivert,   Kush-kush,    JJeuv;    Kha.s   (Hind,   and 
Pers.);    r8ir(Arab.);  Miyamore  {liurm.),  etc. 
Native  of  India.     Very  common  in  many  ])ortion8  of  India,  growing  in  low,  moist, 
rich  soil,  usually  along  the  water  courses,  but  found  on  the  plains  of  northwest 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  61 

India.  Also  fouiul  in  the  West  Indies  and  Brazil,  gfowing  on  rivtT  banks  and  in  the 
marshes.  It  was  introduced  into  Lonisiana  many  years  aijo,  and  is  now  spontaneous 
in  someof  the  lower  parts  of  that  State.  Cultivated  successfully  at  Knox.ville,  Tenn., 
where  the  fragrance  of  the  rhizomes  and  roots  was  develoiie<l  to  a  marked  degree, 
but  the  plants  did  not  bloom. 

Stkuctiral  FiBEK. —  Tliis  siiecies  is  interesting  as  su])plying  the  material  for  the 
sweet-scented,  Hbrous  fans  from  India,  whicli  ])ro\'ed  one  of  the  novelties  of  the  Chi- 
cago Exposition  of  lSit3.  Tliese  fans  are  made  from  the  roots,  which  are  also  employed 
for  making  the  fragrant  screens  known  as  tatties,  which  when  wet  are  hung  before 
the  open  windows  and  doors  of  houses  to  cool  tJie  atmosphere.  The  Kew  Mus.  col- 
lection contains  a  series  of  specimens  of  fans,  baskets,  and  hand  screens  made  from 
these  roots.  *'Also  used  for  awnings  and  as  covers  for  i)alaniiuins  and  fans,  and 
brushes  used  by  weavers  in  arranging  the  thread  of  tlie  web  are  made  from  either  the 
roots  or  the  whole  plant.  The  roots  laid  among  clothing  impart  a  pleasing  fra- 
grance to  the  garments  and  are  said  to  keep  theui  free  from  insects.  The  roots  are 
an  article  of  commerce  s(dd  by  druggists.  In  European  drug  stores  the  roots  are 
known  as  Badix  anathcri  or  liadix  vefirer'uv,  a  stimulant  or  antiseptic.  They  yield  a 
perfume  known  as  retirert,  or,  in  India,  itar."  (F.  Latnson-Scrihtier.)  This  grass  is 
used  as  thatching  material  in  India. 

A.  hirohitns,  another  In<lian  species,  was  formerly  supposed  to  produce  the  "  Hha- 
har"  grass,  which,  however,  is  the  product  of  an  I.svha'itiiim.  A.  nardus  is  the  Citro- 
nella  of  India,  the  stems  of  which  have  been  proposed  as  a  useful 'paper  product. 
Die.  Ec.  Prod.  lud.  A.  condeiisatns  is  an  Argentine  species,  noted  as  n.seful  for  its  fiber. 
Other  fiber  species  are  ./.  tennis  and  A.  serkeus,  in  South  Australia.  The  natives  of 
Kavirondo,  ISritish  Central  Africa,  make  use  of  the  material  of  a  species  of  Aiidro- 
pof/on  for  grass  ropes  with  which  their  cattle  are  tethered.  There  are  a  number  of 
species  of  the  genus  in  the  United  States,  but  none  has  been  reported  as  a  fiber  nnite- 
rial  other  than  cultivated  broom  corn. 

'  Specimens  of  fans,  W.  C.  E.,  1893,  Indian  section ;  grass  and  fiber,  U.  S.  Nat.  Herb, 
and  Mus.  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag. 

Anjan  (Hind.).     See  Hardivickia. 

Anoda-gaha  (Ceyl.).     Abntilon  indicum. 

Anodendron  paniculatum. 

Exogen.     Apoc\inacea\     A  giant  climber. 
An  Indian  species  of  plant  also  found  in  Ceylon.     The  stems  are  said  to  yield  a 
very  strong,  fine  fiber  much  esteemed  in  Ceylon  for  native  uses,  known  as  dul. 

Anoer  (Malay).     Cocos  nucifera. 
Anona  squamosa.     Sour  sop. 

Exogen.     Anonticetr.     Small  trees  or  shrubs. 

There  are  several  species  of  the  genus,  found  in  America, .Africa,  and  Asia.  They 
are  chiefiy  prized  for  their  fruit,  though  a  fibrous  substance  is  yielded  by  the  bark, 
which  has  been  utilized  in  some  countries.  Savorgnan  states  that  in  Guadalonpe 
the  fiber  has  been  employed  for  cordage.  A.  reficulata,  the  true  custard  apple  of  the 
West  Indies,  a  fiber  said  to  have  been  extracted  from  the  young  twigs  which  is  better 
tlian  that  from  the  above  species.  A.  palustria,  Brazil,  which  is  known  as  aratica- 
for/ico,  supplies  the  natives  of  Para  with  a  useful  tibcr.  Species  of  J  hojki  of  Vene- 
zuela, known  locally  as  anoveiUo  and  manirito,  find  a  place  in  the  list  of  useful  fibers 
of  that  country.  Several  of  the  sjjecies  named  above  are  found  in  India,  A.  reticulata 
bein<»-  prized  as  yielding  dye  and  tanning  material,  fiber,  Ibod,  medicine,  and  timber. 
See  Diet.  Ec.  Prod.  Ind.,  Vol.  I,  p.  258,  and  Cat.  Veuez.  Expos.,  1883,  by  Dr.  Ernst, 
The  State  of  Para,  Braz.  Com.  W.  C.  E.,  1893. 

*  Specimens  of  J.  muricaia. — Herb.  Col.  Univ.,  N.  Y. 


62  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OK    THE    WORLD. 

Anoncillo  (Venez.).     Anona  spp. 
Anthistiria  arundinacea. 

Endogeu.     <iramine<f.     A  grass. 

This  species  is  foiuul  iu  iiorihein  India,  where,  uccordiug  to  VV^att,  the  culms  yield  a 

tiber  used  for  cordage  and  for  the  sacrificial  striugs  used  liy  the  Hindoos.     The 

leaves  are  also  employed  as  a  thatching  matt'rial.     Another  species,  the  kangaroo 

grass  of  Australia  (./.  «».s</-«Zi.s),  is  given  in  Bernardin's  list  of  tiber-producing  i)l;ints. 

Anthurium  acaule. 

Belongs  to  the  .Iriim  family.  Native  of  tropical  America.  "  The  small,  broad  leaves 
are  used  as  a  thatch  material  by  the  Indians  of  British  (iuiana,  strung  together  many 
on  a  stick"  (E.  F.  im  Tliurn). 

Antiaris  toxicaria.    The  Upas  Tree. 

Exogen.     Moracea.     Large  evergreen  tree. 

By  some  autliors  ./.  iox'uaria  and  A.  innoxla  (syn.  A.  .saccidora),  the  Travancore 
sacking  trees,  are  rcgnrded  as  one  species.  Botii  abound  in  portions  of  India,  the 
former  on  the  Western  (Jliats  and  in  Ceylon,  the  latter  in  Burma.  The  stripped  bark 
is  soaked  in  water  and  beaten,  producing  a  white  fibrous  cloth,  employed  by  the 
natives.  The  tiber  is  also  used  for  native  coidage,  matting,  and  sacking.  !5oth 
clothing  and  natural  sacks  are  formed  from  the  bark.  An  account  of  this  rude 
manufacture  is  given  in  Die.  Ec.  Prod.  Ind.,  Vol.  I,  p.  208,  as  follows:  "Small 
branches  are  made  into  legs  of  trousers  and  arms  of  coats,  the  larger  ones  forming 
the  bodies  of  the  garments.  *  *  "*  In  making  sacks,  sojiietimes  a  disk  of  the  wood 
is  left  aitaclied  to  the  fiber  to  form  the  bottom  of  the  sack.  At  other  times  the  bark 
is  ])eeled  off.  and  after  being  beaten  iu  water  and  dried  the  top  and  bottom  are  sewed 
up,  forming  the  sack." 

'^Sjjecimviix. — Bot.  Mus.  Hurv.  Univ. 

Antidesma  alexiteria. 

A  species  of  Enphorhidccw,  found  in  India,  the  leaves  of  wliich  are  an  antidote  for 
snake  bites.     Its  fruits  are  edible,  and  cords  are  made  from  the  tiber  of  the  bark. 

Antirrhinum  majus.    Common  Snapdragon. 

The  species  of  tliis  genus  of  Scrojyhu I ariacew  are  found  in  southern  Europe  and  in 
California.  A.  majitsis  common  in  Italy,  where  it  is  known  as  /Auo  (hi  Miiri,  Jiocca 
de  leone,  etc.  It  grows  in  walls  and  is  cultivated  in  gardens.  "The  tiber  of  the  stem 
is  tenacious  and  can  be  used  as  a  textile"  (Manual  Hoepli>. 

Apeiba  tibourbou. 

Exogen.  Tiliacew.  A  tree. 
This  species  abounds  in  many  South  American  countries,  the  fiber  being  iu  the 
form  of  a  thin  ribbon  of  coarse  bast,  similar  to  that  ])roduced  from  the  Tilias,  and 
capatde  of  rude  weaving  into  mats  and  similar  manufactures.  Not  an  important 
fiber,  'hough  given  by  Dr.  Ernst  in  the  list  of  Venezuelan  fibers.  Known  in  Vene- 
zuela as  Erizo.  Bernardin  mentions  A.  idmifolia  as  one  of  the  fiber  trees  of  Trinidad. 
A.  petoumo,  known  as  Corlega  in  Panama,  is  nsed  for  cordage,  its  fiber  being  white, 
tough,  and  strong.  Savorgnan  mentions  A.  glabra  as  a  fiber  species  found  in  Guiana. 
Bernardin  catalogues  two  otlier  species  as  fiber  producing,  A.  aspera  and  A.  idmifolia. 

Apocynum  cannabinum.     Indian  Hemp. 

Exogen.     Apocynactiv.     A  perennial  herb. 

Abounds  throughout  the  western  portion  of  the  United  States.  Specimens  of 
fiber  have  been  received  from  Minnesota.  Nebraska,  Utah,  Nevada,  and  Arizona. 

Bast  Fiber. — Easily  separated  from  the  stalk,  and  when  cleaned  is  quite  fine, 
long,  and  tenacious.     In  color  it  is  light  cinnamon  as  usually  seen,  though  finely 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATAI.OGUE. 


63 


prepared  specimens  are  creamy  white  ami  remarkably  iino  and  soft;  will  rank  with 
Asflepias  for  streugtli,  and  is  readily  obtained,  as  the  stems  are  lonjr,  straight, 
smooth,  and  slender.  Althon,i;h  paper  has  not  been  made  of  it,  it  could  doubtless 
be  ntilized  for  the  purpose.  It  is  principally  employed  by  the  North  American 
Indians,  who  maunfacture  from  it  in  rude  fashion  bags,  mats,  small  ornamental 
baskets,  belts,  twine,  and  other  cordage,  fishing  lines,  and  nets.  Among  fine  speci- 
mens received  is  a  lisli  line,  such  as  is  used  by  the  I'ai  Utes  at  the  Walker  Kiver 
Reservation  in  Nevada. 


Flfi.  20. — The  Indian  liemp  plant,  Ajioci/inim  cminahi ini in. 

The  plant  belongs  to  the  Dogbane  family,  having  upright  branching  stems  -1  or  5 
feet  in  length  with  opposite  leaves,  and  a  tough,  r<Ml<lish  bark.  Spon  mentions  the 
sjiecies,  but  gives  it  the  common  name  "Colorado  hemp,"  whic'li  does  not  apply  to 
this  species,  bnt  to  Seshania  niacrocarpa.  lie  states  that  "  it  yields  a  fine,  white, 
strong  fiber."  The  naturally  prepared  fiber  of  the  specimens  of  A.  cannabinum  that 
have  come  under  the  notice  of  the  author  are  always  a  dark  cinnamon  color  and 
not  white,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  two  species  have  been  confounded.     (Fig.  20.) 


64  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

In  tlie  Russian  cxhibifc  at  tlio  Coltiiubian  Exhibitiou  of  1893  was  shown  a  beautiful 
example  of  Jpocynuni  liber,  about  2A  feet  in  length,  and  dark  salmon  in  color,  which 
it  was  claimed  is  used  commercially  in  Russia  to  a  limited  extent.  Bernardin 
places  A.  cannubinitm  in  his  list  as  produced  in  Virginia,  and  states  that  the  fiber  is 
adapted  to  cordage  and  fabrics.  "A.  canadeiise"  the  same  author  designates  as 
"Canadian  hemp." 

There  are  several  foreigu  species,  as  A.  syriaciim  {Spoil's  Enc. ),  A.  rciufinn,  etc., which 
abound  in  southern  Siberia,  Turkestan,  Transcaucasus,  au<l  on  the  Adriatic,  and 
that  produce  liber  employed  for  cordage,  fishing  nets,  lines,  and  other  uses.  Spou 
states  that  in  some  districts  where  the  fiber  is  more  carefully  jirepared  it  is  manu- 
factured into  textiles.  ''It  is  separated  by  a  short  retting,  is  strong  and  elastic, 
easily  divisible,  bleaches  and  dyes  well,  and  has  a  length  of  6  to  12  feet."  A.  rcneliim 
is  difficult  of  extraction.  .1.  androsamifoHum  probably  affords  as  good  a  liber  as  A. 
cannabiniim.  but  is  not  so  available  on  account  of  the  more  spreading  or  brauching 
habit  of  the  plant. 

^ S2)ecinieiis  of  A.  ciiniiahinitm. — I'.  S.  Nat.  Mus. ;  Field  Col.  Mum.;  ;ind  Mus.  U.  8. 
Dept.  Ag. 

Aralia  papyrifera.     liiCE  Pai'ER  I^lant.     ^ve  Fatsia jxtfi^rifcm. 

Araticu  cortica  (Braz.).     See  Anona. 

Arbol  del  Pan  (Peru).     ArtocdrpuH  incisa. 

Arcidiavolo  (It.).     Celtis  (msiralis. 

Araujia  sericifera. 

An  asclepiadacoous  plant  of  Brazil  growing  in  uncultivated  liilds,  blooming  in 
the  winter  mouths.  It  is  known  as  ruina  de  cauijio,  and  also  Cipo  Sapo.  Liifgren 
states  that  it  is  found  in  Sao  Paulo,  s\  here  its  cotton  is  used  in  the  same  manner  as 
that  from  species  of  Bomhax. 

Arctium  lappa.     The  Common  Burdock. 

Lxogen.     Compositiv.     Coarse  herb. 

This  familiar  plant  and  troublesome  weed,  which  is  said  to  be  of  no  utility  in  the 
vegetable  economy,  was  several  years  ago  the  subject  of  expc^riment  by  Mr.  W.  W. 
Ball,  of  Lasalle,  111.,  who  hoped  to  produce  at  low  cost  a  fiber  material  suitable  for 
binding  twine.  It  was  claimed  that  the  plants  could  be  produced  in  (juantity  in 
new  or  waste  land,  and  could  be  cut,  crushed  with  a  cane  mill,  and  the  bast  steeped 
in  pools  of  water  at  small  cost,  the  fiber  to  be  stripped  by  children,  aud  a  lengthy 
correspondence  followed. 

FiiJKK. — Upon  examination  of  the  manj'  specimens  of  stalks  and  samples  of  the 
"fil)er,"  submitted  both  straight  and  in  the  form  of  "'tow,"  thelllameuts  were  found 
to  be  harsh  and  wiry,  very  brittle,  and  ])osscssing  little  strength.  A  suiall  sample, 
extra  treated,  yellowish  in  color,  very  soft  aud  pliant  to  the  toucli,  and  absolutely 
worthless  as  to  strength,  it  was  suggested  could  be  employed  as  jiaper  stork,  but  the 
entire  series  showed  no  possibilities  in  the  textile  economy. 

Fibrous  plants  of  this  cl.iss  have  no  value  in  the  industrial  economy,  the  fibrous 
material  contained  in  their  bast  being  too  inferior  ever  to  be  used  in  manufacture 
where  so  many  other  better  fibers  are  obtainable  that  may  be  produced  possibly  at 
less  cost. 

*  Specimens. — Field  Col.  Mus. ;  Mus.  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag. 

Arctium  minus. 

This  is  a  European  species,  but  has  been  reported  from  Sao  Paulo,  Brazil.  Brazil- 
ian name,  Carapicho  do  grande. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE. 


65 


This  plant  could  certainly  be  utiliztHl  industrially,  having-  an  excellent  fiber 
beneath  the  bark  which  often  attains  a  length  of  1  meter  without  a  break.  It  grows 
in  the  suburbs  of  towns,  and  flowers  in  the  summer  mouths.     (Jlberio  Lijfgrcn.) 

Areca  catechu.     Betel-nut  Palm. 

Kndogen.      I'dlma'.     Palm,  80  feet. 
Native  of  Cochin  China,  Malayan  Peninsula,  etc.     Cultivated  throughout   trop- 
ical India,  growing  near  the  seashore  and  not  above  .3,000  feet  elevation. 
FiBKU  — While  grown  chiefly  for  its  nuts,  "  the  flower  sheath  is  made  into  skull 


\lf, 


Fig.  21.— Vomig  Betel-nnt  ji.iliii,  Areca  calechu. 

caps,  small  umbrellas,  aud  dishes ;  and  the  coarser  leaf  sheath  is  made  into  cups, 
plates,  and  bags  for  holding  plantains,  sweetmeats,  and  fish"  (Bombay  Gazetteer). 
The  flower  spathe  and  the  fibrous  pericarp  from  the  nut  is  adapted  to  paper  making. 
In  some  parts  of  Ceylon  the  chief  vessels  used  for  carrying  water  are  made  from 
the  leaves  of  this  graceful  palm,  which,  being  of  leather-like  consistency,  are  easily 
converted  into  strong  and  durable  Avater  buckets,  in  the  making  of  which  the 
natives  show  great  ingenuity.  Fig.  21  is  a  greenhouse  plant  of  this  species. 
12247— No.  9^-^ — o 


66 


USEFUL  FIBER  PLANTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


Arenga  saccharifera.     Sago  Palm  of  Malacca. 

Endogeii.     ralmw.     Palm,  upward  of  40  feet. 

Malayan  name,  Gomiiti ;  known  in  Bnrma  as  ti>inHi-on<j.     This  is  also  a  Malayan 
species,  generally  cnltivated  in  India,  the  Asiatic  islands,  .Tava,  Suln  Archi- 
pelago, and  Celehes.     (See  fig.  21'.) 
Stki:ctur.vl  Fihku. — The  gomnti  fiber,  EJoo  or  J:jii  of  the  Malays.     The  product 
is  a  horse-hair  like  substance  found  at  the  base  of  the  lea\es,  which  is  useful  for  the 
nuiuufacture  of  cables,  i-opos,  brush  making,  and  upholstery.     ''Within  the  sheaths 
is  fouud  a  layer  of  reticulated  fibers,  which  is  said  to  be  in  great  demaud  in  China, 
being  apjdied,   like  o:ikum,  in   calking  the   seams  of  ships"   (Jla//).      Rox1>urgh 
etatcs  that  the  black  fibers  of  the  leaf  stalks  are  adapted 
,ii//Z^      for  cables  and  ropes  intended   to  long  resist  wet.     Sim- 
N,^ "  >^^.    inonds   regards  the   Ejoo  fiber  as   superior  in   durability, 
^^    quality,  and  cheapness  to  cocoaunt  fil>er,  on  account  of  its 
j::'  ^^     resistance  to  the  action  of  water.     The  fiber  placed  in  the 

^^  bottom  of  a  vessel  is  useful  for  filtering  water  of  its  me- 

chanical impurities.  Royle  states  that  a  coarse  line  of 
Ejoo,  tested  for  its  strength,  stood  a  strain  of  85  pounds, 
while  a  similar  line  of  coir  broke  with  75  pounds.  The 
same  author  states  that  the  bow  anchor  of  a  merchant 
ship,  buried  in  the  sands  of  the  Hoogly,  was  raised  by 
means  of  an  Ejoo  cable  after  three  Russian  cables  had 
given  way  in  previous  attempts.  The  fiber  is  oiually 
elastic  with  coir,  floats  on  the  water,  and  is  more  service- 
able than  coir.     Sandals  are  nuide  from  the  leaf  sheath. 


Aristida  adscensionis.     Broomstick  Grass. 

Kndogeu.  (Iraminea-.  A  broom  grass. 
From  the  root  fibers  of  this  grass,  which  is  common  in 
northwest  India,  a  material  is  obtained  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  weavers'  brushes.  Fine  specimens  of  the  product 
were  shown  in  the  Indian  Court  at  Chicago,  AY.  C.  E.,  1893, 
though  little  information  could  be  ac.cured  concerning  them. 
"The  Telinga  paper  makers  construct  their  frames  from 
the  culms;  it  also  serves  to  make  brooms"  {Wall).  Used 
for  tatties,  or  hot-weather  screens,  in  India  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  Cuscus  roots  {Andropofjon)  are  employed. 
The  material  is  spread  thinly  over  bamboo  frames.  See 
Die.  Ec.  Prod.  Ind.,  Vol.  I,  p.  312.  The  Indian  Agricul- 
turist for  February  25,  1893,  contains  a  full  account  of  this 
grass  and  the  manner  of  collecting  it  for  use  in  making 
weavers'  brushes.  The  Bot.  Mns.  Harv.  Univ.  shows 
Mexican  brooms  made  from  the  rigid  culms  of  J.  appreasa. 


Fig.  22.— Leaf  of  the  Sago 
Palm  of  Malacca,  Arenga 
saccharifera. 


Aristotelia  macqui. 

Exogen.  TiUacca:  A  shrub  or  small  tree. 
Native  of  Chile.  The  wood  of  this  tree  is  considered  to  be  the  most  sonorous  of  all 
in  the  vegetable  kingdom;  elegant  and  resonant  guitars  are  made  from  it,  and  from 
the  bark  are  constructed  strings  for  the  same.  The  acid  berries  of  this  plant  are 
used  in  China  as  a  remedy  for  malignant  fever.  In  Chile  they  are  used  to  make  a 
sort  of  wine.  (Manual  lloepli. )  I  can  find  i.o  other  reference  to  the  use  of  this  plant 
for  fiber. 

Arnotto  or  Annato  plant.     See  BLm  orcllana. 
Aromatic  sumac.     Rhus  tnlohata. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE. 


67 


Aroosha  or  Arusha  (liul.).     See  Galliciuya  cana. 
Arrowroot  plant  (see  Ma  rant  a). 
Artabotrys  spj). 

Exogens.  Anonacea'. 
Natives  of  India  aiul  Indian  Archipelago;  shrubs  or  cliiuliiug  plants.  Savorgnan 
mentions  A.  zeiihinicits,  the  iiber  of  which — the  color  of  iron  rust — is  use<l  iu  tackle 
lor  marine  purposes,  and  .1.  suareoleiis,  the  twigs  of  which  are  used  by  the  natives 
of  the  Malaysian  Archipelago  for  cords.  The  species  is  cultivated  in  greenhouses. 
J.  oiloratisshniis  is  a  scandent  shrub,  cultivated  in  India  and  eastern  countries.  It 
is  not  mentioned  as  a  fiber  plant  by  Dr.  Watt,  l)ut  is  included  in  list  of  hbers.  Kept. 
Fhix  and  Hemp  Com.,  1863.     The  tiber  is  said  to  be  of  good  length. 

Artemisia  moxa. 

Exogen.     Comjiosita'.     .Small  shrubs. 

The  wormwoods  arc  widely  distributed  over  the  tom]terate  regions  of  the  two 
hemisplieres.  In  Texas,  New  Mexico,  and  other  regions  of  the  ''great  West''  entire 
tracts  are  covered  by  species  oi  Artemisia.  A.  absiidhitim  is  of  well-known  economic 
value. 

FiBEH. — On  the  authority  of  Savorgnan  the  down  or  cottony  substance  produced, 
as  a  surface  fiber,  by  J.  moxa,  is  used  as  au  absorbent  by  Chinese  and  .Japanese  phy- 
sicians. He  also  mentions  A.  vulgaris,  found  iu  stony  ])laces  and  among  the  gravelly 
soil  of  water  courses  (presumably  in  Italy),  known  as  Vauupuaia,  the  bark  of  which 
is  filamentous  and  gives  a  material  similar  to  liemp.  A  common  species  of  temperate 
Europe. 

Artificial  Silk. 

One  of  the  interesting  exhibits  iu  Machinery  Hall,  at  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1889, 
was  that  illustrating  the  i^rocess  of  drawiug  out  the  filmy  thread  of  artificial  silk 
and  reeling  it  into  skeins  of  wonderful  brilliancy  and  finish,  this 
process  being  the  invention  of  Count  M.  de  Chardonnet.  The  process 
is  intended  to  produce  from  pure  cellulose,  as  a  starting  point,  an 
artificial  substance  resembling  as  far  as  possible  in  form,  appearance, 
and  in  adaptability  to  the  uses  of  manufacture,  tlie  animal  substance 
spun  from  the  cocoons  of  Bombijx  mori  (or  other  species)  and  known 
as  silk.  The  various  kinds  of  cellulose  can  be  employed  to  pro- 
duce the  substance  out  of  which  the  silk  is  drawn,  ou  condition  that 
they  are  pure  and  not  lial)le  to  alteration  by  reagents.  The  inventor 
in  his  own  exiieriments  has  given  his  attention  principally  to  cotton 
and  the  pulp  of  soft  woods  suli)hureted. 

With  these  materials  there  is  formed  a  pure  octonitric  cellulose, 

dissolved  iu  the  proportion  of  (5.5  per  100  in  a  mixiure  of  38  iiarts 

ether  and  42  j)arts  alcohol.     This  collodion  is  inclosed  iu  a  reservoir 

of  tinned   copper  where   an   air  pump  keeps  a  pressure  of  several     iio- -3— Device 

atmospheres,  which  is  held  down  by  a  ramp,  upon  which  are  fixed       ^""^^   '*^  mauu- 
...  .,,  •         i         .  11,.  Jacture  of  ar- 

ghiss  tubes  terminating  in  a  capillary  section  A.     A  second  tube,  13,        tiiici  il  silk 

envelops  each  of  the  first  and  receives  an  excess  of  water  by  the 

tubulure  C.     This  water,  held  by  an  india-rubber  pipe,  D,  falls  again  around  13. 

The  collodion  driven  through  the  orifice  A  is  iiuuiediately  solidified  at  the  surface 

iu  coutact  with  the  water,  and  falls  with  this  water  iu  thread  form  around  B,  and 

there  pincers,  which  move  automatically,  take  up  the  thread  and  carry  it  over  the 

reels,  which  are  turning  above.    The  threads  coming  from  the  neighboring  jets  are 

united,  forming  a  combined  thread  like  raw  silk.     Each  jet  is   furnished  with  a 

device  for  regulating  the  size  of  the  thread.     Iu  manufacturing  this  thread  the  jets 

and  bobbins  are  inclosed  iu  a  glass  case  to  prevent  the  loss  of  the  dissolveut,  and  iu 


68  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

Avhich  an  even  qnantity  of  air  circulates,  being  constantly  reheated  at  the  entrance 
of  the  machine  (to  dry  the  threads)  and  cooled  again  at  the  exit  (to  collect  the  vapor). 
The  skeins  are  formed  like  those  from  the  silk  cocoons.     {Count  de  Chardonnet.) 

Starting  with  paper  pulp,  ^vhich  is  pure  cellulose,  this  is  nitrated,  as  has  V»een 
shown,  transforming  it  into  pyroxylino  or  gnu  cotton.  It  is  this  collodion  that  is 
spun,  and  the  "silk"  is  naturally  inflammable  to  a  high  degree,  and  consequently  in 
this  form  would  be  a  decidedly  undesirable  form  of  fabric  to  use  for  any  purpose. 
It  is  necessary  to  denitrify  the  silk,  therefore,  before  the  processes  of  spinning  and 
subsequent  manufacture.  The  various  pyroxylines  reduced  in  tepid  baths  lose  their 
nitric  acid.  Pure  water  is  also  effective,  though  the  reaction  is  even  more  complete 
in  diluted  nitric  acid.  The  nitric  acid  of  the  cellulose  is  removed  by  a  dissolution 
which  takes  place  more  or  less  ciuickly  in  proportion  as  the  bath  is  warm  and  con- 
centrated; but  it  can  be  pushed  lurthcr  in  i)roportion  as  the  bath  is  cooler  and  more 
diluted.  The  elasticity  of  the  artificial  silk  is  claimed  to  bo  equal  to  the  natural 
silk  of  animal  origin.  The  elongatiou  before  rupture  is  from  15  to  25  i>er  cent.  "The 
real  elasticity  is  about  4  to  5  per  cent."  A  square  millimeter  of  artificial  silk  will 
stand  a  breaking  strain  of  25  to  35  kilograms.  Haw  silk  will  break  at  30  to  45  kilo- 
grams. In  density,  artificial  silk  rates  at  about  1.49,  coming  between  that  of  natural 
raw  silk  at  1.66  and  natural  boiled  silk  at  (about)  1.43.  In  luster  and  brilliancy  it 
is  said  to  surpass  the  natural  article.  Examined  under  the  microscope  in  section, 
the  filament  of  artificial  silk  has  the  appearance  of  a  grooved  cylinder.  It  is  claimed 
that  this  silk  can  be  produced  for  15  to  20  francs  per  kilogram,  or  al)Out  $1.40  to  $1.80 
]»er  pound, natural  silk  costing  from  three  to  four  times  as  much.  The  Textile  World, 
Boston  Mass.,  for  June  1897,  publishes  recent  interesting  statements  on  this  subject. 

Artocarpus  incisa.    Breadfruit  Tree. 

Exogeu.     Moraceo: 

This  species  is  the  well-known  breadfruit  tree  of  the  South  Sea  Islands.  A  caout- 
chouc is  derived  from  the  tree  which  is  used  as  a  glue  and  for  calking  the  canoes  of 
the  islanders.  Known  in  Peru  as  the  Arbol  del  I'an,  which  means  breadfruit  tree. 
The  species  of  this  genus  are  found  in  India  and  the  East  Indies.  New  Guinea,  Poly- 
nesia, New  Zealand,  and  the  Pacific  islands. 

Fiber.— "The  bark  yields  a  liber  used  by  the  Indians  of  Loreto  for  making  cloth- 
ing" {A.  Dorca).  "The  bark  of  the  young  branches  is  utilized  for  clothing  in  the 
more  southern  islands  of  Malaysia"  {Savor (j-n an).  A.  integrifolia,  the.jackfiuit  tree, 
yields  a  fiber,  samples  of  which  were  sent  to  the  Paris  Exposition  from  India.  The 
timber  is  much  used  for  making  furniture  and  resembles  mahogany.  A.  lakoocha 
also  yields  a  fiber,  said  to  be  employed  for  cordage. 

Arum  spp. 

A  genus  of  Aracerr,  the  species  of  which  are  found  in  many  parts  of  the  w(U-ld. 

Fiber. — I  have  never  seen  the  fiber  of  any  species,  but  Bernardin  states  that  fiber 
has  been  extracted  from  A.  macrorrhizon  (now  Alocasia  macrorrhiza)  and  from  A. 
funiculacenm  (species  not  in  the  Index  Kewensis).  Both  are  included  in  the  Flax 
and  Hemp  Commission  li.st,  the  first-named  fiber  measuring  19  feet,  and  the  second, 
"aerial  root,  10^  to  14i  feet;  petiole,  2  feet  6  inches." 

Arundinaria  falcata.    Himalayan  Bamboo. 

Endogen.  Graminea\  Cane-like  grass,  6  to  10  feet. 
Western  Himalayas,  above  4,000  feet  elevation,  but  descending  to  the  plains  in  the 
eastern.  "The  leaves  are  used  for  roofing  and  baskets"  (TVatt).  The  Kew  Mus. 
exhibits  a  rough  mat  made  from  the  split  stems  in  India.  See  also  I><imhii.sa  and 
Dendrocalamus  for  other  forms  of  bamboos.  The  Harvard  University  botanical  col- 
lection contains  some  examples  of  Japanese  fans  from  A.  japonica. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE. 


69 


Aruiidinaria  gigantea.     Cane. 

Endojjen.     draminea:     I'erennial,  10  to  30  feet. 

Caue  of  the  Southern  swamps.     (See  fig.  2t.) 

"A  valuahh^  snpplemeut  to  the  winter  i»astures.  Thonsauds  of  animals  have 
almost  no  other  food.  The  foddor  furnished,  however,  does  little  more  than  sustain 
life,  and  is  of  no  value  for  fattening  or  lor  milch  cows.  Attemi)ts  made  to  cultivate 
this  grass  have  not  heeu  successful.  The  plant  hlooius  hut  once,  and  when  tbe  seeds 
mature  the  cane  dies.  The  caues  are  used  for  mau y  purposes,  such  as  fishing  rods, 
scafiblds  for  dryiug  cotton,  splints  for  haskets,  mats,  etc."     (/■'.  Lamsoii-Scrihner.) 

Two  species  are  recognized — the  above,  or  large  cane,  and  J.  lecta,  the  suuvll  cane, 
which  is  the  more  important  a^  a  fiber  plant.     See  the  next  title. 

Arundinaria  tecta.     Lesser  Cane. 

''This  is  regarded  by  some  as  ouly  a  variety  of  the  cane  mentioned  above,  but  it 
is  of  smaller  growth,  rarely  exceeding  10  feet  In  height:  it  e  ctends  as  far  north  as 
Maryland.     Its  woody   stems  and  perennial 
leafage  are  like  those  of  J.  f/if/iDitea,  aftbrd- 
iug  similar  fodder  to  cattle  upon  the  winter 
ranges."     ( /■'.  Lamson-Scribner. ) 

Structural  Fibkr. — Coarse,  but  very 
strong,  the  length  depending  upon  the  dis- 
tance between  the  joints  of  the  cane.  As 
prepared,  it  is  a  yellowish  ochre  in  colt  r.  Is 
suitable  for  coarse  cordage,  such  as  l>iniling 
twine,  and  for  paper  manufacture. 

Economic  C'oxsidkkations. — The  employ- 
ment of  southern  cane  as  a  fiber  substance 
dates  back  to  about  1870,  wJien  an  effort  was 
made  to  produce  a  paper  material  from  the 
canesby  a  process  known  as  "steam  blowing." 
In  reducing  the  caue  to  this  fibrous  state, 
tightlj^  compressed  bundles  of  the  "  bamboo  " 
were  placed  in  steam  cylinders  or  guns  24 
feet  long  and  12  inches  in  diameter,  and  there 
subjected  to  the  action  of  steam  at  a  pressui-e 
of  about  170  pounds  to  the  scjuaro  inch  for 
about  ten  minutes.  The  gums  and  glutinous 
matters  which  held  the  fibers  together  were 

thereby  dissolved  or  softened,  and  while  in  that  state  the  cane  Avas  blown  into  the 
air  by  the  force  of  the  steam  in  the  gun,  and  the  fibers  separatcid  by  the  ex))ausion  of 
steam  among  them.  The  papers  manufactured  from  the  steam-blown  fiber  were 
difterent  grades  of  wrapi)ing  paper,  book,  and  -'news,"  some  of  the  samples  being 
quite  white  and  of  good  quality.  The  industry  never  l)ecame  permanent,  however. 
See  Ann.  Kept.  U.  S.  Dep.  Ag.,  187i»,  p.  563. 

Recently  another  form  of  caue  fiber  has  been  produced  from  this  species,  which 
promises  to  become  an  industry,  as  the  fiber  is  prepared  at  such  low  cost  that  it  will 
be  able  to  compete  with  the  better  fibers  for  certain  purposes.  Beautiful  samples 
of  the  straight  and  tangled  liber  were  exhibited  with  the  canes  in  the  collection  of 
the  Office  of  Fiber  Investigations  in  the  United  States  Government  exhibit  at  Chi- 
cago. Tests  of  the  fiber  made  by  the  author  show  that  it  Avill  stand  a  breaking 
strain  .about  equal  to  sisal  hemp  and  approaching  to  that  of  manila  hemp.  The 
process  is  patented. 

Dr.  ITavard  makes  the  statement  that  the  caue  of  the  Southern  States  furnishes 
the  principal  basket  material  of  the  remnants  of  the  Cherok«'es,  Choctaws,   Creeks, 


Fig.  24. — Caiic  Aniitttiiiarla  (;i  iiutfci. 


70  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

Chickasiiws,  .and  .Scniiiioles.     The  Choctaws   cspcciiilly   excel  in  its  use,  and  their 
little  baskets,  variously  colored,  are  oil'ercd  i'or  sale  in  .several  Soutliern  cities. 
^Specimens. — Field  Col.  Mus. ;  Mus.  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag. 

Arundo  donax. 

Endogen.     (Iramincd'.     Tall  grass  or  reed. 

A  widely  distributed  s])ecies,  supposed  to  be  the  scriptural  "reed."  The  ])lant 
grows  to  a  height  of  10  feet  in  England,  tliongh  luuch  taller  in  llie  south  of  Europe. 

USE.s. — The  canes  being  long,  straight,  and  light,  make  adniiral)le  fishing  rods  and 
excellent  arrows;  the  latter  quality  being  of  great  iuiportance  to  the  warlike  Jews 
after  they  began  to  practice  archery  with  effect.  See  also  riiragmites  comminiis,  an 
allied  species.  J.  Icarlca  is  nientiouod  by  Liotard  as  one  of  the  fiber-producing 
plants  of  the  Prfi^ince  of  Sindh,  in  India.     See  page  H,  Introduction. 

Arvore  de  Paina  (Braz.).     See  Chorixia  apeciono. 

Asa  (Jap.).     Sec  (Uoinahis  fKdira. 

Asclepias    syriaca.     Common  Milkweed,  ot^  Silkweed,  oi'  the 
1'nited  States. 

Syu.  A.  ronniti. 

Exogen.     Juvlcpinddccd:     Perennial  shrul). 

Abounds  in  Canada,  grows  over  a  Avicb;  section  of  our  own  country,  and  is  well 
known  in  portions  of  South  America  and  in  the  Old  Worhl.  The  culture  of  the  plant 
is  said  to  be  attended  with  little  dilliculty,  as  it  geuer.illy  thrives  on  poor  soil  and  is 
a  jierennial.  It  grows  from  either  the  roots  or  seed,  so  wouhl  be  easily  ]troiiagated 
if  desirable  to  cultivate  it.  Probably  the  commont\st  and  best  known  species  of 
milkweed  or  "silkweed''  growing  in  the  United  States. 

FiiiKR. — The  only  ]>ortion  of  the  plant  of  which  practical  use  can  be  made  is  the 
hast,  which  furnishes  (|uite  a  tine,  long,  glossy  iilier  that  is  strong  and  dur.able. 
Early  authorities  have  given  it  a  place  between  llax  and  hemp,  and  the  yield  has 
been  claimed  about  equal  to  the  latter.  Dr.  Schaeffer,  as  far  back  as  the  fifties, 
made  com])arisons  of  the  two  fibers  in  Kentucky,  and  his  conclusions  were  most 
favorable  to  the  Asclepias  fiber.  The  native  fiber  was  taken  in  winter  from  the 
decayed  stalks  as  they  stood  in  the  ground  where  they  grew  without  culture,  while 
the  hemp  had  not  only  been  cultivated  but  treated  afterwards  with  the  usual  care. 
The  fiber  of  the  milkweed  was  nearly,  if  not  quite,  as  strong  as  that  of  theiiemp,  but 
apparently  finer  and  more  glossy,  while  the  quantity  from  a  single  stalk  of  each  was 
nearly  the  same. 

Among  specimens  of  the  fiber  shown  in  the  Mus.  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag.  are  some  fine  exam- 
ples from  Brazil,  which  have  been  most  carefully  prepared,  showing  that  the  value 
of  the  plant  has  been  recognized  in  that  country,  though  there  are  no  records  of  its 
nse  in  manufacture.  According  to  one  of  the  old  authorities,  "an  early  knowledge 
of  the  fiber  of  silkweed  causedits  introduction  into  Europe,  where  it  has  fully  become 
a  cultivated  plant,  while  in  its  own  country  but  little  is  known  of  its  true  value." 
Dr.  Masters,  an  European  authority,  states  that  "its  excellent  fiber  is  woven  into 
muslin,  and  in  some  parts  of  India  is  made  into  paper.''  From  the  Flax  and  Hemp 
Comnnssion  of  1863  the  Department  received  small  pieces  of  .l.tchpias  cloth  mixed 
with  one-third  cotton.     The  bast  forms  a  good  paper  material. 

Surface  Fiber. — While  the  stalks  yield  a  good  liber,  the  x>ods  or  seed  vessels  pro- 
duce a  mass  of  silk-like  filaments,  adhering  to  the  seed,  resembling  thistle  down,  and 
frequently  called  Acgetable  silk.  Experiments  in  this  country  have  shown  that  the 
substance  has  no  value  beyond  a  mere  upholstery  material,  or  for  nse  as  wadding, 
and  i'or  stuffing  pillows.  Spon  makes  the  statement  that  the  material  is  used  for 
stuffing  beds  in  this  country,  and  reference  is  mad(;  to  the  nianni'acture  of  fabrics 
from  it  in  Russia  and  France.  A  French  firm  has  used  it  by  mixing  20  ]ier  cent  of 
the  "down"  Avith  80  per  cent  of  wool,  the  fabric  being  called  "sil\<'r  iloth."     The 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  71 

suhstancc  could  not  be  used  alone,  as  the  colls  are  so  .smooth  that  they  have  no  fVlt- 
infj  iiroperty,  and  therefore  will  not  hold  together  and  can  not  be  spun.  They 
possess  little  strength,  and  can  only  bo  considered  as  silky  hairs,  and  not  as  fiber. 

In  my  notes  made  at  Kew  I  find  reference  to  samples  of  muslin  made  from  a  species 
of  Asclrj)ia8  from  Syria.  There  was  also  a  very  beautiful  and  delicate  fabric  in  colors. 
J.  si/riaca  is  referred  to  by  Royle,  who  states  that  it  is  a  native  of  Syria  and  culti- 
vated as  far  north  as  Upper  Silesia.  "The  plants  thrive  luxuriantly  in  light  soil, 
but  flourish  on  any  poor  land.  The  fibers  of  the  stem,  prepared  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  those  of  hemp,  furnisli  a  very  long  fine  thread  of  glossy  whiteness."  The  Syrian 
species,  doul)tle8S  introduced  from  the  New  World,  is  the  common  milkweed  of  the 
United  States.  .John  Robinson,  Museum,  Pealiody  Academy  of  Science,  Salem, 
informs  me  that  as  early  as  1862  ]\Iiss  Margaret  Gerrish,  of  that  city,  spun  and 
wrought  from  the  fiber  of  A.  syriaca  purses,  workbags,  socks,  and  skeins  of  thread, 
which  were  dyed  in  many  colors. 

^Specimens — Mus.  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag. 

Asclepias  curassavica.    Wild  Ipecacuanha. 

This  species  is  found  in  the  southeru  United  States,  Mexico,  West  Indies,  and  ])or- 
tions  of  South  America,  as  Venezuela.  Common  in  Yucatan,  cucliUijciii  being  the 
Maya  name.  The  plant  is  also  found  iu  India,  having  been  introduced  from  South 
America,  though  it  is  not  mentioned  iu  any  list  of  Indian  fiber  plants. 

Surface  Fiber. — While  the  stalks  produce  n  bast,  the  only  mention  of  the  plant 
as  a  textile  is  iu  regard  to  its  yielding  ''silk  cotton."  Dr.  Havard  states  that  the 
seed  hairs  of  this  species  are  claimed  to  be  stronger  than  those  of  other  siiecies  that 
have  been  considered.  The  Kew  ISIns.  has  a  collar  made  from  the  fiber.  The  eco- 
nomic value  of  the  plant  in  the  West  Indies  is  its  employment  in  pharmacy. 

Asclepias  fruticosa. 

The  down  of  this  species  is  used  iu  Italy  to  a  small  extent  as  wadding.  The  plants 
only  thrive  in  favorable  situations.  The  plant  is  known  as  Alhero  della  srln,  or 
silk  tree. 

Asclepias  incarnata.     The  Swamp  Milkweed. 

This  species,  according  to  Cray,  abounds  from  Maine  to  Minnesota  and  southward 
to  Louisiana,  l>eing  found  as  far  south  as  the  Carolinas  on  the  Atlantic  coast.  A 
variety,  pulchra,  having  hairy  stems,  has  almost  as  wide  a  northerly  distriluition, 
and  is  also  found  in  North  Carolina. 

Bast  Fiher. — Light  gray  to  white  in  color,  according  to  preparation,  specimens 
from  the  old  stalks  in  the  field  resembling  dew-retted  llax  in  appearance*  The  fiber  is 
finer  than  hemp  as  usually  prepared,  soft  and  glossy,  i)ossessiug  greater  strength  than 
the  majoi-ity  of  bast  fibers  of  Avild  growth  in  the  United  States.  Useful  for  all  pur- 
poses to  Avhich  hemp  maybe  applied.  "Binder  twine  from  this  species  stood  a 
breaking  test  of  95  to  125  pounds"  (/.'.  ./.  Hall). 

Economic  coxsideratioxs. — In  1890  this  plant  attracted  attention  in  Jlinnesota 
as  worthy  of  cultivation,  and  a  quantity  of  the  fiber  from  wild  ]tlants  was  secured 
and  manufactured  into  binding  twine  for  examination  and  experiment.  While  no 
better  than  common  hemp,  it  might  pay  to  cultivate  the  plant  for  its  fiber,  but  as 
hemji  culture  is  an  established  thing,  and  hemp  is  also  found  growing  wild  (escaped 
from  cultivation)  in  many  localities  where  A.  incarnata  aljounds,  there  would  be  no 
special  advantage  in  its  cultivation. 

"It  can  be  produced  on  overfiowed  land  where  no  other  cultivated  plants  will 
grow  and  yield  double  the  fiber  that  flax  will  produce.  Such  lands  maj'  be  described 
as  bottom  lands  subject  to  overtlow,  of  which  Miunesota  has  thousands  of  acres.  The 
use  of  such  tracts  would  avoid  drawing  upon  our  grain  lands.  The  plant  will  pro- 
duce as  much  fiber  as  a  crop  of  hemp  and  with  less  labor.  It  grows  as  far  north  as  the 
forty-sixth  parallel,  and  I  incline  to  the  opinion  that  cultivation  will  carry  it  uj)  to 


72 


USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


the  British  line  and  perhaps  beyond.     It  Idossoma  in  Angnst,  and  the  liber  does  not 
fully  develop  nntil  nearly  or  quite  ripe,  in  September."     (A.  E.  Hall. ) 

"A.  incartiaUi  lionrishes  in  low,  moist  grounds  and  by  slow  running  streams,  grow- 
ing annually  from  a  perennial  root  some  5  to  7  feet  high.  It  grows  in  clumps  or 
stools,  starting  as  soon  as  frosts  leave,  and  seems  to  assert  its  position  successfully 
with  other  shrubbery  and  weeds.     In  many  respects  the  plant  seems  to  resemble  the 

ramie;  the  fiber  is  soft  and 
silky  until  the  plant  is  quite 
mature,  and  rather  diflicult 
of  handling  by  any  i)resent 
liiioNvu  process,  but  from 
(•xi>oriments  already  made 
it  ])romise8  to  equal  the 
ramie  in  fineness  and  value. 
The  plant  may  be  propa- 
gated by  seed,  but  the  root 
may  be  divided  into  from 
live  to  ten  separate  plant 
hills  and  produce  stalks  the 
same  season.  It  should 
have  an  abundance  of  wa- 
ter to  draw  from,  although 
]>]ants  4  feet  high  have  been 
noticed  growing  upon  u])- 
lands,  but  unless  set  thick- 
ly together  the  plant  is 
shorter  and  more  bushy." 
(S.  S.  Jloyce.)  (See  fig.  25.) 
Undoubtedly  J.  iMCrtrHrt/c 
promises  better  results  than 
any  of  the  indigenous  spe- 
cies of  bast  fibers  in  the 
United  States  that  have 
been  considered.  If  it  will 
thrive  upon  Avaste  lands 
where  no  other  crops  will 
grow,  it  has  to  that  extent 
an  advantage  over  hemp, 
considering  the  strength  of 
the  fiber  as  fully  equal  to 
hemp.  Recent  cultural  ex- 
]>eriments  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Department  of 
Agriculture  seem  to  show 
that  the  plant  does  not 
thrive  on  upland,  nor  do  as  well  in  cultivation  as  in  the  uncultivated  state.  See 
Kept.  Fib.  Inv.  series,  U.  S.  Dei)t.  Ag.,  No.  G. 

*  Specimevs. — Mus.  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag. ;  Field  Cid.  Mus. 

Asclepias  verticillata. 

Abounds  in  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  Nevada,  and  contiguous  territory,  and  as  far 
eastward  as  the  Mississippi  Valley. 

"The  fiber  is  grayish  Avhite,  very  strong,  and  is  used  by  the  Indians  of  the  South- 
we.st  for  sewing  togetlrer  the  skins  for  'rabbit  robes,'  and  also  as  a  tying  material 
in  the  <"onstruction  of  their  habitations"  (C.  TV.  Irmh).  Tliesoil  thrown  nji  to  form 
the  banks  of  irrigating  ditches  is  soon  covered  with  this  Astlepias. 


Fir..  2.">. — Till'  Swamp  Jiiilkwoi'd.  Ascli'pias  incanttita. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE. 


73 


Ash  (for  basket  si)liiits).     See  Fraxinii.s  nif/ra. 

Asimina  triloba.     The  Papaw  of  Temperate  United  States. 

Exogen.     Jtioiuiecir.     A  tree. 

Abounds  in  eastern  middle  I'nited  States  Irom  Miebiyan  to  tlie  (Julf. 

FiBKK. — Derived  from  tlie  inner  bark,  but  now  seareely  employed  lor  any  purpose. 
"The  inner  bark  stripped  from  the  branches  in  the  early  spring  is  still  used  by  lisher- 
men  ou  the  Ohio  and  other  Western  rivers  for  stringing  iish;  formerly  employed  in 
making  hshuets"  (('.  S.  Sargent).  Dr.  Ilavard  states  that  the  inner  bark  has  a 
tough  librous  textnre,  and  in  former 
times  was  commonly  used  by  the  Indi- 
ans for  withes,  strings,  nets,  etc. 
Savorguau  states  that  the  bast  from 
the  inner  bark  of  young  sjjrouts  is 
very  strong  au<l  lustrous. 


Assai  Palm,  of  Para.     ( I>ia/..). 
Eutirpe  oleracea. 

Astelia  banksii. 

Endogen.  Lillacea'.  A  rush. 
This  species  belongs  to  a  genus  of 
rush-like  plants  found  in  the  islands 
of  the  southern  ocean.  The  plant  is  a 
native  of  New^  Zealand,  and  grows  to 
a  height  of  4  feet.  "  It  is  ridi  in  fiber 
suitable  for  ropes,  paper,"  etc.  The 
liber  is  of  a  dirty  yellow  color,  the 
"filaments"  exceedingly  coarse  and 
wiry;  rather  brittle  when  bent  sharii- 
ly,  but  of  considerable  strength  when 
tested  with  a  lateral  strain.  The 
".specimen  lu  the  collection  of  the  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  was  prepared 
by  Dr.  Guilfoyle.  The  leaves  of  A. 
alpbia  which  grow  on  the  sand  liills  of 
the  coast  of  Tasmania  are  edible. 

Astrocaryuni  acaule.     The  Iu 
Palm.  -i»S^g^.,jjs^v;v„ 

Endogen.      Falma'.      A  palm,   8   to      p-ui.  20.- Tlie  ^Murumuni  ]i:iliu,  ,l.<f/rooari/in(j  jHwru 
10  feet.  iiinrii. 

"This  palm  never  has  any  stem,  the 
leaves  springing  at  once  from  the  ground.     They  are  8  or  10  feet  hmg,  slender  and 
pinnate.     The  Icallets  are  very  narrow  ai.d  drooping,  and  are  disposed  in  groups  of 
three  or  four,  at  intervals  along  the  midrib,  the  separate  leafb^ts  standing  out  in  all 
directions."     {TVallace.) 

It  is  stated  that  this  palm  grows  iu  the  dry  Catiug.-i  forests  of  the  ui)per  Kio  Negro, 
Brazil.  The  rind  of  the  leafstalks  is  u.sed  by  the  Indians  for  juaking  baskets.  A. 
ayri,  another  Brazilian  species,  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  coarse  articles.  The 
fiber  is  derived  from  the  leaves. 

Astrocaryum  murumuni.    The  Murumuru  Palm. 

This  is  another  South  American^ species  of  palm.  It  grows  "on  the  tide  lands  of 
the  lower  Amazon,  and  on  the  margins  of  the  rivers  and  gai»os  of  the  upper  Amazon, 
though  it  is  possible  that  the  two  may  be  distinct  species."    Fig.  26  grows  iu  Para, 


74 


USEFUL  FIBER  PLANTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


The  stem  is  from  S  to  12  feet  high,  irregularly  ringed,  and  armed  Avithloug,  scattered 
l)lack  spines.  'J'he  leaves  are  terminal  and  of  moderate  size,  regularly  pinnate,  the 
Icallets  spreading  out  uniformly  in  one  i)lane,  elongate,  aente,  with  the  terminal  pair 
shorter  anil  Inoader.  The  petioles  and  sheathing  bases  are  thickly  covered  Avith  long 
black  spines  generally  directed  downward,  and  often  8  inches  long.  The  spadices 
grow  from  a-niong  the  leaves  and  are  simply  branched  and  spiny,  erect  when  in 
tlower,  l)nt  drooping  with  th(>  fruit.  The  spathes  are  elongate,  splitting  open  and 
decidnons.  The  fruit  is  of  a  moderate  size,  oval,  of  a  yellowish  color,  and  with  a 
small  quantity  of  rather  juicy  eatable  pulp  covering  the  seed.     (./.  7i.  Wallace.) 

This  author  also  states  that  the  cattle  of  the  upper  Amazon  eat  the  fruit,  which 
is  liard  and  stony,  wandering  about  for  days  in  the  forest  to  procure  it  .    There  is 

scant  D'ference  to  its  liber.  It  is 
called  the  Miirurtiui  in  a  pamphlet 
distributed  by  the  Brazilian  com- 
mission, W.  ('.  E.,  1893,  where  it  is 
stated  that  its  fruit  serves  for  food 
for  cattle  and  the  stems  of  its  new 
leaves  for  braiding  hats  and  making 
baskets.  It  is  also  mentioned  by 
Hrton. 

Astrocaryuni  tucuma.     The 
Tecuma  J'alm. 

In  the  list  of  Brazilian  fibers  pub- 
lished by  the  lirazilian  commission, 
W.  C.  E.,  1893,  the. /<n(ar^  (J. /fljinrf) 
and  the  tiicmn  (A.  tucinna)  are  men- 
tioned as  valuable  fiber-producing 
plants.  From  A.  Iiiciima  "the  fiber 
is  extracted  for  niauufacture  into 
hats,  baskets,  ropes,  and  other  useful 
articles,"  In  Bernardiu's  list  the 
TncKVi  palm  is  given  as  Astrocarymn 
nilf/are  (which  see),  found  in  Guaya- 
quil, Guiana,  and  Trinidad,  In  the 
Ofiicial  Guide  of  the  Kew  Mns,  the 
Tecuma  jialm  is  given  as  A.  tncmna, 
the  Thciuh  palm  being. 'J.  rnlf/arr. 

SnucTiHAL  Fir.KK. — Samples  of 
the  fiber  of  A.  Inciima  were  exhib- 
ited in  the  Brazilian  collection, 
Phil,  Int.  Exh.,  187G,  and  'presented 
to  the  United  Sates  Department  of 
Agriculture, 

It  was  stated  that  the  liber  is  obtained  from  the  young  leaves  and  is  readily  secured, 
as  it  lies  just  under  the  epidermis  of  the  leaf,  Avhich  is  so  exceedingly  thin  that  it  is 
easily  rubbed  off,  leaving  the  fiber  white  and  clean.  Its  strength  was  claimed  to  be 
equal  to  llax.  The  filaments  are  so  fine  that  it  has  received  the  name  of  vegetable 
wool.  In  the  specimens  received  by  the  Department  the  fiber  had  not  been  cleaned, 
yet  in  some  portions  the  l)undles  of  iilamcnts  Avere  clear  and  white,  showing  the 
fiber  to  the  best  advantage.  This  was  sufficiently  strong  for  fine  weaving,  and  from 
the  ease  with  which  it  is  separated  might  be  obtained  very  cheaply,  "Its  nse  in 
Brazil  is  for  the  manufacture  of  nets,  fish  lines,  and  hammocks."  Fig.  27  shows  a 
young  and  an  old  tree. 

"While  autiiorities  .agree  that  Tncitm  is  .-in  .istrorarj/iim,  Jlarlria  srtosii  is  mentioned 
as  the  Tkciiiii  in  a  volume  on  the  resources  of  Brazil  distributed  at  the  Philadelphia 


=;i^^f^ 


Fin.  27.— Til.'  T.'ruin:i  palm. 


Istrocanjiirir  tiiciiina. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE. 


75 


exbil)ition  of  1870,  and  Afitrocaryum  is  called   tlie   Tucunutn.      In   IJiTnardiii's  list 
Baciris  is  called  Tevuii.     Tlio  Kcw  Mus.  Guide  names  ./.  (tcnlealitm  as  the  (Iri  (h-i. 
*  Sjyichneiis. — Mus.  U.  S.  Pei)t.  Ag. 

Astrocaryum  vtilgare.     The  Tfcum  Palm. 

This  species  grows  on  the  dry  forest  land  of  the  Amazon  and  Rio  Negro.     Culti- 
vated by  the  Indians  Avhen  not  met  with  in  a  wild  state.     (See  fig.  28). 

Stkuctural  Fiber. — "Tucuin  thread,"  derived  from  the  unopened  leaves,  "is 
used  chiefly  for  bowstrings  and  fishing' nets;  employed  also  for  hiunmoeks,  which 
fetch  a  high  figure  in  Rio  Janeiro."  By  the  native  method  of  extraction  only  about 
2  ounces  of  fiber  can  be  extracted  in  a  day,  even  by  an  expert  manipulator.  Savorg- 
nan  states  that  the  leaves  yield  a  fiber  of 
great  strength,  which  is  made  into  cord- 
age, and  also  furnish  material  for  hats 
known  commonly  as  Arvora. 

The  only  part  used  is  the  young  unex- 
panded  leaves,  the  cuticle  of  which,  when 
twisted,  furnishes  cordage  of  extreme 
fineness,  combined  with  great  strength 
and  duraliility.  Some  of  the  tribes  on  the 
upper  Amazon  are  said  to  make  all  their 
hammocks  of  this  fiber,  Wallace,  in  his 
Palm  Trees  of  the  Amazon,  says :  The  Bra- 
zilians of  the  Rio  Negro  and  upper  Ama- 
zon make  very  beaiitil'nl  hannnocks  of  fine 
'iiiciim'  thread,  knitted  by  hand  into  a 
compact  web  of  so  fine  a  texture  as  to 
occupy  two  persons  three  or  four  months 
in  their  completion.  They  then  sell  at 
about  £3  each,  and  when  ornamented 
with  the  feather-work  borders,  at  double 
that  sum.  Most  of  them  are  sent  as  pres- 
ents to  Rio  de  Janeiro. 

The  fiber  is  fine,  resistant,  and  durable, 
and  the  natives  employ  it  in  making  ropes, 
coarse  linen,  nets,  horse  blankets,  and  es- 
pecially hammocks  and  strong  fish  nets,, 
for  which  it  is  much  esteemed.  The  fiber 
is  yellowish  white  and  Aery  elastic.  A 
small  cord  of  scarcely  2  millimeters  in 
thickness  will  sustain  a  weight  of  3  kilos. 
And  at  the  end  of  six  hours  it  will  have 
extended  in  length  from  800  millimeters  to 
809  millimeters,  which  is  equal  to  1.12;") 
per  cent.     It  is  capable  of  absorbing  a 

great  quantity  of  water;  a  rope  weighing  72  grams  after  having  been  submerged 
in  water  something  more  than  one  hour  showing  an  increase  of  27.7  per  cent. 

^•'^pecimeiis  are  preserved  in  the  Bot.  Mus.  Harv.  Univ. 

Atabula  (lud.).     Si  da  rhomhifolia. 
Atiraukawa  (^evr  Zea.).     Phormhim  leuax. 
Attalea  funifera.     IUhia  Piassaba,  or  Piassaya. 

Endogen.     Pahnw.     A  palm  tree,  30  to  40  feet.     (See  fig.  29.) 
"Widely  distributed  in  the  lowlands  of  Brazil ;  common  throughout  the  Province  of 
Bahia  parallel  to  the  coast  from  latitude  13^  to  18^.     A  very  full  account  of  the  fiber 


Fig.  28.— 'I'lii 


%'^''' 


Tiiciiiu  pnlni  .[slinranntm   )'nl- 
qari'. 


76  USEFUL  FIBER  PLANTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 

and  nietliods  of  gatliciiiijjf  it  for  market  appears  in  the  Kew  P>nlletin  for  1889,  from 
which  tiie  followiiij;  statements  have  been  lar<^ely  eom])ile<l : 

Stkuctx'KAL  Fihkk. — Obtained  from  the  dilated  base  of  the  leaf  stalks,  which 
separates  into  a  long,  coarse  frinjje,  which  is  collected  by  the  natives  by  cuttinn  with  a 
small  ax.  The  iiber  is  stiff,  wiry,  and  a  brij;ht  chocolate  in  color,  and  is  employed  in 
the  manufactnre  of  brushes;  largely  used  on  strt^t-sweeping  machines,  particularly 
in  London.  The  natives  twist  these  fibers  into  coarse  cables,  which  are  light  and 
durable,  and  which  will  iloat  on  the  water. 

Fiber  from  young  undeveloped  plants,  called  J:aiia)ielras,  is  bright  c(dored  and 
more  flexible.  The  fiber  from  tlie  fully  matured  plants,  called  Coguciran,  is  sepa- 
rated into  three  cjualities — 

(1)  Ordinary  fiber,  which  is  i'ouml  wound  up  ainoug  the  broken  leaves  and  the 
upper  part  of  the  trunk. 

(2)  Ualloou,  formed  by  the  elder  fiber  which  has  fallen  to  the  ground  rouutl  the 
base  of  the  trunk. 

(3)  Fiassava  (Volho,  or  "eye  ]>iassavn,"'  which  is  the  latest  growth,  and  is  in  all 
resi^ects  similar  to  thnt  yielded  bj-^  the  Jlanaueirax.  The  latter,  on  account  of  its 
flexibility  and  color,  is  chiefly  used  in  tying  the  bales.     Its  yield  is  small. 

COLLECTIOX  AXD  PREIWKATIOX. — The  palm  grows  in  the  neighborhood  of  rivers 
and  on  land  that  is  always  in  a  half  swampy  condition.  The  trees  bear  filter  fit  to 
jiull  or  cut  at  the  of  age  G  to  9  years.  The  mean  temperature  of  the  piassava  district 
is  77"^ .  'Crops"'  are  discovered  by  exploration,  as  a  tract  of  scattered  trees  can  not 
he  advantageously  worked  over.  After  a  suitable  location  is  discovered  the  camp  is 
stocked  with  mules  and  food  for  both  men  and  animals,  and  the  work  begins.  The 
average  cutof  one  nuiu  is  3  arrobas  perday(l  arroba --32^  pounds)  of  theloo.se  fiber, 
though  the  filter  is  only  weighed  after  putting  into  bumlles,  into  which  stones  and 
pieces  of  palm  are  often  smuggled  to  add  to  the  weight.  After  weighing  the  tiber  it 
is  trausi>orted  to  the  fazenda  of  the  projtrietor,  where  it  is  baled  (both  by  haiul  and 
by  press),  ready  for  shipment  to  Bahia.  Including  cutting,  expenses  of  transporta- 
tion. Avith  wages  of  muleteers  and  hire  of  animals,  and  then  food,  packing,  labor,  com- 
mission, etc.,  amount  to  2.4(i8  milrei.s,  or,  ai)proximat<dy,  $1.38.  Very  little  of  the 
fiber  is  used  locally,  almost  the  eutire  product  being  exported.  Of  the  annual  exjtort 
of  7,000  tons,  (ireat  Britain  takes  about  half,  Germany  very  nearly  a  quarter,  the 
remainder  going  to  Belgium,  France,  Portugal,  and  the  southeru  Republics. 

In  the  monthly  circular  of  Messrs.  Ide  &  Christie,  the  London  fiber  brokers,  all 
the  harsher  conunercial  brush  fibers  are  classed  under  "Piassava,-'  the  following  forms 
being  recognized :  Brazilian,  Bahia  ( J</«/ea./'«H(/tT«)  and  Vnra  { Lcojioldinia  jnassaba) ; 
Kitool,  from  Ceylon,  etc.  (Canjota  irreiis) ;  Palmyra,  also  from  Ceylon  (Horasstis  fiubel- 
lifer);  West  Africa,  P>uphia  vinxfera,  and  Madagascar,  Dklyospcrmafihrosum.  Bahia 
jriassaha  ranges  in  ])rice  from  18s.  to  .58s.  per  hundredweight  in  London. 

A.ftinifera  iinds  a  place  in  Dr.  Ernst's  Venezuelan  list,  known  as  Chiqnech'iqne.  Its 
fiber  is  an  article  of  export  from  Venezuela  as  well  as  Brazil,  some  90,000  pounds 
having  been  exported  in  a  single  year.  "The  liber  is  employed  for  brooms,  brushes, 
ropes,  and  cables.  The  last  arc  very  strong,  durable,  and  so  light  that  they  float  on 
water.  Recently  there  have  been  experiments  made  in  the  United  States  to  trans- 
form these  fibers  into  an  article  similar  to  hor.sehair  for  making  mattresses."'  {Dr. 
Krnst.)     I'rincipally  used  in  the  United  States  as  a  brush  fiber. 

A.  spedahUis,  the  Ciiriia  jialm,  found  on  the  Rio  Negro,  Brazil,  furnishes  in  its  leaves 
a  thatch  material.  In  Peru  it  is  known  as  Shacapa,  and  "the  fiber  is  used  for  ropes." 
James  Orton,  in  The  Andes  and  the  Amazon,  mentions  also  .1.  humhoJiiava,  the  Yagiia 
of  the  Indians.     Dorca  gives  Calirina  as  t'he  Peruvian  name  of  Attaha. 

*  Specimens  of  fiber  and  ropes,  Mus.  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag. 

Attalea  speciosa.     Uauassu  Palm. 

This  species  grows  on  tlie  dry  forest  lands  of  the  upjter  Amazon.  It  is  a  noble 
palm,  with  a  stem  .">0  or  00  feet  high,  str.aight,  cylimlrii  a),  and  nearly  snuioth.     'I'he 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE. 


77 


leaves  are  very  large,  tenninal,  and  ie<;ularly  pinnate.  The  leaflets  are  elongate, 
rigid,  closely  set  together,  and  spreading  ont  Hat  on  each  side  of  tlio  midrib.  The 
sheathing  hases  of  the  petioles  are  persistent  for  a  greater  or  less  distance  down 
the  stem,  and  in  young  trees  down  to  the  ground,  as  in  tlio  (Knovuipna  hataua.  The 
spadices  grow  from  among  the  leaves  and  arc  large  and  simply  branched.  The 
fruit  is  of  large  size  compared  with  most  American  palms,  being  about  3  inches  long, 
and  from  this  circumstance  it  derives  its  native  name  "  I'auatisii"  signifying  "  large 
fruit." 

On  the  lower  Ani.i/.oM  and  in  the  iieighhorhood  of  Para  ./.  i.nrl.sii  is  not  iinconimon. 
It  is  a  handsome,  lofty  species  which  grows  on  lauds  Hooded  at  high  tides,  and  is 
called   by  the  natives  rniciiri.     The  fruit  of  this  tree  is  burnt,  and  the  smoko  is 
used    to    black     the    newly    made 
India  rubber.      Martins   says  that 
the  fruit  of  the  A.  82)cci(>f<a  is  used 
for  this  purpose,  but   that   species 
is  not  found  in  the  principal  rub- 
ber   districts,   while    ,(.    cjcil.su    is 
abuiulant  there.      ( If'allace.  Palms 
of  the  Amazou). 

Structural  Fiuki;. — The  foliage 
of  this  tree  is  very  extensively 
used  for  thatching.  The  young 
plants  produce  very  large  leaves 
befoie  the  stem  is  formed,  and  it  is 
in  this  state  that  thej'  are  gener- 
ally used.  The  unoxiened  leaves 
from  the  center  are  preferred,  as, 
though  they  reqviire  some  prepara- 
tion, they  produce  a  more  uniform 
thatch.  The  leaf  is  shaken  till 
it  falls  partially  open,  aiid  then 
each  leadet  is  torn  at  the  base  so 
as  to  remain  hanging  by  its  mid- 
rib only,  which  is,  however,  quite 
sufificient  to  secure  it  firmly.  They 
thus  hang  all  at  right  angles  to 
the  midrib  of  the  leaf,  which  ad- 
mits of  their  being  laid  in  a  very 
regular  manner  on  the  rafters. 
They  are  generally  known  as 
"palha  brauca''or  "white  thatch," 
from  the  pale  yellow  color  of  the 
unopened  leaves,  and  are  consid- 
ered the  best  covering  for  liouses 
in  places  where  7?«ss»'  can  not  be  oljtainetl 


m 


y\n.  ■_'9.--Tlie  Ballia  Piassubii  jiiiliii,  Attahn  t'liii 
{Wallace,  Palms  of  the  Amazon.) 


Athryxia  phylicoides. 

Thisspecies,  known  in  Xatal  as  i-Tsh(iniida,  is  said  by  .1.  Medley  Wood,  in  tlie  Peport 
of  the  Colonial  Herbarium  (Durban,  1894),  to  be  employed  as  a  material  for  brooms. 

Australian  mallow.     See  Laratera  plebela. 

Aya-mushiro  matting  (.lap.).     See  Gyperux  unitans, 

Baboi  and  Babui  (Beng.).     See  Lschcvmum. 


78 


USEFUL    FIBER   PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


Bacaba  (Braz.).     See  (Enovarirm  hacaha. 
Bacona  and  Vacona  (Maurit^.     Vandaniis  uHlls. 
Bactris  setosa. 

Endontu.     I'alnuv.     A  slender  palm. 

This  iijciiiis  of  palms  is  Ibuml  in  the  West  Indies,  ISiazil,  and  other  tropical  regions 
of  .South  America. 

StkiCTLKAL  FiHEJi. —  The   liber  of  tlie  lea\es,  known  as  Tccnn  (or  Tcci(iii)  both  in 

I'eru  and  Brazil,  is  very  strong,  and 
is  used  "  for  (ishiug  uels  and  lines" 
(Sarorgiiaii),  and  "for  hats,  routes, 
hanimoeks,  etc."  {Dorva). 

The  species  a])pears  in  Bernardin's 
Catalogue  ^vitll  the  common  nanio 
Tecum,  the  liber  of  which  is  "em- 
ployed for  hammocks  and  fillets." 
t?ee  also  .lutrocaryum  inciima  and  .1. 
ntlijarc.  li.  inaraja  is  another  Bra- 
zilian species  mentioned  in  Notes  ou 
the  State  of  I'ara,  W.  C.  E.,  1893,  as 
8npi»lying  a  useful  liber. 

Bactris  integrifolia. 

A  Brazilian  species  found  on  the 
u]>per  Kio  Negro.  The  stem  is 
hardly  so  thick  as  the  little  finger, 
and  9  or  10  J'eet  high,  smooth  and 
distinctly  jointed.  Tlie  leaves  are 
four  or  live  in  number,  terminal, 
entire,  three  or  four  times  as  long 
as  they  are  wide,  and  not  very  deeply 
bifid  at  the  end.  The  petioles  and 
their  .sheathing  bases  are  thickly  set 
with  long,  flat  black  spines.  The 
spadices  are  Aery  small,  erect,  and 
two-branched,  growing  from  among 
the  persistent  sheathing  liases  below 
the  leaves.  The  spathes  are  small, 
erect,  and  persistent,  clothed  with 
adpressed  brown  spines.  The  fruit 
is  small  and  globular  and  of  a  black 
color.  ( 11  allacc.)  Not  iiarticulai  ly  interesting  as  a  lilier  jdaut,  but  serves  to  illus- 
trate the  group.     (See  lig.  30.)     Refer  to  Guiliclma  niyeciosa. 

Bagasse. 

The  refuse  of  sugar  c;iue  after  roller  crushing,  before  the  dilfusi(ui  process  had 
been  adopted.     The  Ibllowing  is  from  a  report  by  the  author  issued  in  1S79: 

"  Among  other  iibrous  products  named  in  reply  to  the  circular  sent  to  manufacturers 
were  samples  of  the  bagasse  of  sugar  cane  and  a  series  of  the  products  derived  from 
it  for  paper  manufacture.  The  raw  product  is  obtained  at  the  mills  (Louisianasiigar 
plantation)  at  about  $15  per  ton,  or  three-fourths  of  a  cent  per  pound.  The  bagasse 
from  Louisiana  cane  is  considered  superior  to  that  fron«  the  West  Indies,  from  the 
fact  that  it  never  reaches  its  real  state  of  maturity,  Avhilo  the  latter  is  not  used  until 
(luite  rijie.     The  matured  liber  is  coarser  and  less  Hexiblo  and  strong." 

"Megasse,  or  Bagasse,  the  refuse  of  the  sugar  cane  after  passing  through  the 


I'k;.  ISO. — Bactris  iiiU'jirifiiU. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  79 

rollers  of  the  sugar  mill  for  tbo  oxpressiou  of  the  juice.  It  is  generally  used  in  the 
Tropics  as  fuel,  but  latterly  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  use  it  for  jniper  making. 
Samples  of  paper  made  from  it  are  shown."     (Off.  Guide  Kew  Mus.) 

Bagolaro  (It.).     Celtls  (tt(str((n.s. 

Bahia  piassaba  (Braz.).     See  Attn  lea  fum/era. 

Bakrabadi  jute  (lud.).     See  Cordwrus. 

Balizier  (Triu.).     See  IlcUconia. 

Balsa  or  Balso  (S.  Am.).     See  Ochroma  httiopus,  etc. 

Bambagia  (see  Bomlxi.v  inalabaricum). 

Bamboo  (see  Arundiiiariit,  liamhusa,  and  Dcndroralamuti). 

Bambusa  arundinacea.     The  Ba3i13oo. 

Eudogeu.     Graminav.     A  cane,  70  to  80  feet. 

Native  NAMES. — Quu'ih  {Arah.);  X(n{Vevs.);  Maiultju!)  (nomh.);  lUttis  (ISeiig.); 
Kattu-una  (Ceyl.). 

"The  8i)iny  bamboo  of  central  and  southwest  India." 

The  genus  Bamhnxa  embraces  many  species  of  ''giant  grass  "'  found  in  the  Trojiics 
of  both  hemispheres,  but  B.  arundinacea  may  be  generally  accepted  as  the  one  com- 
monly known  as  bamboo.  The  largest  and  best  caucs  a:c  produced  from  this  spe- 
cies, though  other  cultivated  species  are  sometimes  mistaken  for  it.  Dr.  Morris  says 
that  B.  vulgaris  is  generally  cultivated  in  British  gardens. 

Stkuctukal  Fiber. — This  is  derived  from  the  shoots,  which  are  reduced  to  librous 
material  to  form  paper  stock.  For  other  manufactures  the  canes  are  sjilit  or  shred- 
ded, to  be  afterwards  Avrought  into  various  forms. 

CuLTiVATiox. — The  method  of  planting  it  most  commonly  adopted  by  the  natives 
of  India  is  by  shoots,  or  the  lower  jiart  of  the  halm  with  a  portion  of  the  rhizome, 
set  out  during  the  rains,  but  heavy  and  constant  rain  for  some  time  afterwards  is 
essential.  In  Algeria  projjagatiou  by  stem  cuttings  is  found  to  succeed  admirably. 
Cultivation  from  seed  is,  perhaps,  the  most  certain  plan;  but  it  is  open  to  the  serious 
disadvantage  that  the  plant  then  re(iuires  ten  to  fifteen  years  to  attain  a  growth 
sufficient  to  admit  of  cropping.  The  plant  will  not  grow  in  poor  or  waste  soils,  but 
prefers  the  rich  land  on  the  banks  of  streams.  Abundance  of  moisture,  suiiplied 
either  naturally  or  by  irrigation,  is  absolutely  essential.  Thousands  of  acres  of 
wild  bamboo  jungle  exist  in  the  Tropics,  but  very  little  of  this  is  available  for  the 
pnri)oses  of  the  paper  manufacturer,  as  experience  has  shown  that  shoots  of  the  year 
are  the  only  ones  which  can  be  used.  This  fact,  couj)led  with  the  effually  iuiportaut 
one  that  an  abundance  of  bamboo  is  essential  to  the  very  existence  of  the  native 
races  of  the  East  Indies,  renders  it  certain  that  for  industrial  undertakings  the  plant 
would  have  to  be  systematically  cultivated.     (Spon.) 

Utility. — The  variety  of  jjurposes  to  which  the  bamboo  is  applied  is  almost  end- 
less. The  Chinese  use  it  in  one  way  or  another  for  nearly  everything  they  rei^uire. 
The  sails  of  their  ships  as  well  as  their  masts  and  rigging  consist  chiefly  of  bamboo, 
manufactured  in  different  ways.  Almost  every  article  of  furniture  in  their  houses, 
including  mats,  screens,  chairs,  tables,  bedsteads  and  bedding,  aiul  utensils  gener- 
ally employed  in  the  domestic  economy,  and  even  coarse  underclothing,  are  made  of 
this  material,  which  is  similarly  used  in  Japan,  Java,  and  .Sumatra. 

"Employed  in  shipbuilding  and  in  the  construction  of  bridges.  lUickets,  i)itcher3, 
flasks,  and  cups,  are  made  from  sections  of  the  stems.  Baskets,  boxes,  fans,  hats, 
and  jackets  are  made  from  the  s]ilit  bamboo.  Ropes  and  Chinese  paper  are  made 
from  these  grasses.  A  Chinese  umbrella  consists  of  bamboo  paper,  witii  a  )>and)Oo 
handle  and  split  bamboo  for  a  frame.  The  leaves  are  used  for  packing,  filling  beds, 
etc.,  and  occasionally  serve  as  fodder  for  stock.     The  young  shoots  serve  as  a  vege- 


80  USEFUL   FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

table.  Tabashir,  or  bamboo  uianna,  a  siliceous  and  crystalliue  substance  which 
occurs  in  the  hoUow  stems  of  some  bamboos,  is  regarded  as  ])ossessiug  medicinal 
properties.  Good  drinking  water  collects  in  quantities  in  the  hollows  of  the  inter- 
nodes  of  many  of  the  larger  bamboos.  All  sorts  of  agricultural  implements,  appli- 
ances for  spinning  cotton  and  wool  or  for  reeling  silk  arc  often  constructed  entirely 
from  bamboo.  Very  many  articles  of  household  use  or  decoration  made  from  bam- 
boo have  become  articles  of  commerce  in  Europe  and  in  this  country.  So  many  and 
A'aried  are  the  uses  of  the  several  species  of  bamboo  that  it  is  possible  to  mention 
here  only  a  part  of  them."     (F.  Lamsun-Scribner.) 

For  making  paper  stock  the  Chinese  employ  the  shoots  1  and  2  years  old.  The 
material  is  macerated  in  water  for  a  week  or  more,  after  which  the  pieces — some  5 
feet  in  length— are  washed  and  i)laccd  in  a  dry  ditch  and  covered  Avith  slacked  lime 
for  a  number  of  days,  when  they  are  again  washed,  cut  into  tilaments,  and  dried  or 
bleached  in  the  sun.  In  this  state  they  aie  boiled  in  large  kettles  and  subsequently 
reduced  to  pulp  in  wood  mortars  by  means  of  heavy  pestles.  A  glutinous  substance  is 
then  mixed  with  the  ])ulj),  and  upon  this  mixture  the  (piality  of  the  ])aper  depends. 
Another  account  is  given  in  An  Index  to  Economic  Products  of  Jamaica,  1891,  under 
Bamhusa  vithjaris,  as  follows: 

"In  China,  it  is  the  principal,  if  not  the  only,  material  for  2)aper  making.  The 
Chinese  use  the  native  bamboo,  which  they  split  into  lengths  of  3  or  4  feet,  and  place 
in  a  layer  in  a  tank.  This  is  covered  with  lime,  and  alternate  layers  of  bamboo  and 
lime  are  so  placed  until  the  tank  is  full.  AVater  is  run  in  to  cover  the  whole,  and 
left  for  three  or  four  months,  when  the  bamboo  has  become  rotten.  The  soft  bam- 
boo is  pounded  in  a  mortar  into  a  pulp,  mixed  with  water,  and  then  poured  on 
square,  sieve-like  molds.  The  sheets  are  allowed  to  dry  on  the  mold,  then  placed 
against  a  hot  wall,  and  finally  exposed  to  the  sun.  Mr.  Rontledgo  advocated  the  use 
of  young  shoots,  but  one  difficulty  is  that  cutting  them  weakens  the  stock  ;  in  fact, 
if  all  the  young  shoots  are  cut  for  three  successive  years  the  stock  dies.  At  Lacovia, 
bamboo  is  crushed,  and  exported  in  shoi't  lengths  as  i)acking  for  cylinders.  The 
young  shoots,  freed  from  the  sheaths,  arc  used  in  India  in  curries,  ])ickle8,  and  pre- 
serves.    The  A'ery  young  shoots  are  not  unlike  asparagus."     (Faircett.) 

While  articles  of  bamboo  are  common  in  this  country,  being  largely  imported 
brush  making  from  bamboo  splints  is  a  considerable  industry. 

Bamiya  (Arab.).     Hibiscus  cscKlenius. 

Banana  (see  Mnsa  sapicntnm). 

Ban-b^vay  (Burm,).     See  Carcija  arborea. 

Bandaka  (Ceyl.).     See  Hibiscus  esculentus. 

Bandala.     See  Musa  textilis. 

Bandura-wel  (Ceyl.).     See  Nepenthes. 

Bang  (Pers.).     Cannabis  sativa. 

Bankas  and  Bankush  (X.  W.  Tiov.  lud.).     See  Ischwmum, 

Banraj  and  Banraji  (Beng.).     BauMnia  racemosa. 

Ban-rhea  (Iiid.).     Sec  ViUebriinea. 

Bans  and  Behur  bans  (Beng.).     Bambusa  arundinavea. 

Bans-keora  (Ind.).     See  Agave  amcricana. 

Banyan  Fiber  (see  Ficus  bvnghalcnsis). 

Baobab  Tree.     Monkey  Bread  of  Africa.     See  Adansonia  digitata. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  81 

Barbone  (It.).     Chrysopogon  f/rj/IIus. 
Barbari  (Ind.).     See  Beaionontiii. 

Barley  stra-w.     l^.inployed  in  straw  ]»lait.     See  Hnrdrnm. 
Barrigon  (S.Am.).     See  Ceiha. 
Barriguda  (Braz.).     Iriartea  ventHco.sa. 
Bashofu  (cloth,  of  Jap.).     See  ^rusa  hasjoo. 
Basket  manufacture. 

Jiaskots  are  made  from  grasses  and  sedges,  from  the  lauee-like  leaves  of  I'rccd' and 
similar  plants,  from  palm  leaves,  and  from  the  twigs  of  various  dicotyledonous  plants, 
such  as  the  willows,  etc.  See  Salix  riminalis,  S.  iriandra,  S.  lasiandro,  etc.;  liliiis 
irllohata,  Yucca  hrerifolia,  Scirjnis  lacusiris,  Epicampes  rigens,  Lygeum  8i)artmn,  etc. 
Also  m;ul(^  from  splints  of  ash,  pine,  hickory,  and  other  woods.     See  Fraxiuiis. 

Bass  fiber.    Monkey or  Para  j^ifismha  {seeLeo2)oldiui((  piassaba) ; 

West  African (see  Raphia  vinifera). 

Bass-like   fibers  {>>ee  Attalea  fvnifera.  Borassun  iiahellifer,  and  Dic- 

ti/osjH'DN ion  fihrosum). 

Bassia  longifolia. 

An  India  species  of  Sapoiiicco  mentioned  by  Liotard  in  his  >\ork  on  India  paper 
materials. 

Bassine.     Same  as  Palmyra.     See  Borassus. 

BassTvood  or  Linden.     See  Tilia. 

Bast  Fiber,  Description  of.     See  Introduction,  ]>age  25. 

Bastard  Aloe.     Af/are  vivipara. 

Bastard  cedar  (Jam.).     See  Guazuma. 

Batatas  paniculata.     Caffir  Cotton.     See  Ipommi. 

Bauhinia  coccinea. 

Exogen.     Leguminosiv.     Small  tree. 
A  jilaut  of  Cochin  China,  the  bark  of  which,   according  to  tlie  Manuiil  Hoepli, 
yields  a  very  strong  fiber;  the  uses  are  not  stated. 

Bauhinia  racemosa.    Maloo  Climber. 

The  Bauhhiias  are  a  genus  of  arborescent  or  climbing  jtlants  belonging  to  the 
Legiimhio8(i',  and  are  found  in  tropical  countries. 

Fhjer. — The  inner  bark  of  this  Indian  species  yields  a  bast  fiber  that  can  be  made 
into  rude  cordage,  but  which  soon  rots  in  water.  It  is  reddish  in  color,  very  tough 
and  strong,  and  on  account  of  this  (quality  has  been  employed  in  India  in  the  con- 
struction of  I)ridges  across  the  .lumna.  The  stems  are  usually  cut  in  .1  uly  or  August, 
the  outer  bark  being  stripped  off  and  thrown  away,  while  the  inner  layers  are  used 
for  rope  as  wanted,  being  pn-viously  soaked  in  water,  and  are  twisted  wet. 

Other  Indian  species  yielding  fiber  are  B.  macrostachi/d,  Jl.  loinentosa,  B.  purpurea, 
B.  angnina  (the  suake  climber),  and  B.  vahlii  (the  gigantic  climber).     (See  fig.  31.) 

The  uses  of  B.  racemosa  are,  perhaps,  more  numerous  than  those  of  any  other  for- 
est plant;  the  strong  cordage  prepared  from  its  bark  is  an  important  article  with  the 

12247— 2s^o.  9 Q 


82 


USEFUL  FIBER  PLANTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


hill  tribes.  Specimens  of  this  fiber  were  exhibited  at  the  Loudon  Exhibition  of 
1851  under  the  name  of  Fatwa  or  2Iawal.  A  large  tollection  of  strong  red  ropes 
from  it  were  also  displayed  at  the  Calcutta  International  Exhibition.  Captain 
Huddlestou  in  his  Report  on  Hemp  in  Garhwal,  in  1810,  gives  the  following  facts: 
"The  'maloo'  is  a  largo  creeper,  40  or  50  yards  m  leugtli,  aud  of  considcralde  thick- 
ness, from  the  \:j.ik  of  which  a  very  strong  rope  is  made.  The  natives  ehielly  use  it 
for  tying  up  their  cattle  aud  sewing  their  straw  mats  with  the  fresh  bark;  it  also 
makes  capital  matches  for  guns,  aud  muzzles  for  oxen  and  calves."  It  is  "cut  gen- 
erally in  July  or  August,  thou'^h  it  may  be  cut  all  seasons,  and  the  outer  bark,  being 

strii)ped  oil',  is  thrown  aAvay,  the  inner 
coating  being  used  for  ropes,  as  wanted, 
by  l)eing  jjreviously  soaked  in  water  aud 
twisted  when  wet.  A  large  creeper  will 
pioduce  a  maund  of  fiber,  called  'seloo.' 
The  bark  before  being  used  is  boiled  and 
beaten  with  mallets,  whi(  h  renders  it  soft 
and  i>lial)le  for  being  made  into  ropes  aud 
string  for  charpoys."  (Jf'ait.)  See  Si)on, 
Enc.,lJiv.  3,  p.  921;  Die.  Ec.  Prod.  Ind., 
A'ol.  I,  p.  122;  Ann.  Kept.  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag., 
187!".  p.  528. 

Bauhinia  splendens.    The  Chain 
('KEi:ri;K. 

X.VTIVE  NAME. — Bejuco  de  Cadena 
(Venez.).  Bejuco  (Cent.  Am.). 
Grows  wild  in  Brazil,  Venezuela,  and 
South  America  generally.  Samples  of  tlie 
librous  l)ark  from  the  countries  named 
were  received  from  the  Phil.  Int.  Exh., 
1876.  "Found  in  hot,  damp  forests.  The 
stems  are  extremely  flexible  and  tough  so 
that  they  can  be  used  as  cords,  being  more 
durable  than  iron  nails,  which  in  the  damp 
atmosjjhere  rust  very  soon  and  give  way." 
(Ernst.) 

Specimens  of  heavy  cordage  from  this 
species  exhibited  in  the  museum  of  the  De  ■ 
l)artment  Avere  made  by  twisting  together 
the  unprepared  strips  of  Ijark  as  peeled 
from  the  plant.  The  ribbon-like  strip  is 
very  dark,  almost  black,  and  the  cordage 
is  of  the  coarsest  description.  The  cables 
are  about  1}  inches  in  diameter.  In  the  handbook  of  Para,  Ilnithlnia  is  referred  to  as 
the  mitraro,  which  jiroduces  strong  libers  for  ropes.     Also  found  in  Costa  Rica. 

Beach  grass  (see  Ainni02)}iila). 

Bear  grass  (see  Yia-ra  und  Dasylirion). 

Beaumontia  grandiflora. 

Exogen.     Apocynacece.     Evergreen  clim.ber. 

India,  east  and  north  Bengal.  From  Nepal  eastward  to  Sikkim,  Sylhet,  and  Chit- 
tagong,  ascending  to  4,000  feet  elevation. 

SCUFACE  Fiber. — "It  furuishes  the  best  seed  hairs  yet  known,  though  least  util- 
ized.    The  fiber  is  said  to  be  not  only  the  nu)st  lustrous  aud  most  purely  white  of  all 


Fui.  31. — Leaves  of  Bauhinia  vahlii. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  83 

the  so-called  'vegetable  silks,' but  possesses  besides  a  reinarkablc  degree  ofstiengtli. 
Moreover,  the  hairs  are  very  easily  separated  from  the  seeds.  The  diiiiensions  of  (he 
fibers  are,  1.181  to  1.771  iiuhcsloug,  and  0.001287  to  O.OOlWiuch  in  diameter.'  (Spou.) 
A  fiber  is  also  prepared  from  the  young  twigs.     ( IVutt.) 

Bedanjir  (Pers.).     See  Ricinun  communis. 

Bedolee  sutta  (lud.).     See  Pwderia. 

Bejuco,  or  Bejuco  de  Cadena  (S.  Am.).     See  Bauhinia  splnnlcns. 

Beligobel  (Ceyl.).     Hibiscus  tiUaccns. 

Belli  patta  (IJouib.  and  Cejd.).     See  Hibiscus  tiliaccus. 

Bene.     Aiidropoijon  squarrosus. 

Bengi  (Paiij.).     Cannabis  satira. 

Bent  grass  (see  Ammophila  arenaria). 

Bernauda  palm.     Sabal  blaclburnianum. 

Bertholletia  excelsa.     Brazil  2sut  Tkee. 

Exogen.     Lcvi/lliidacai.     Tree,  100  to  150  feet. 

Native  of  British  Guiana,  Venezuela,  and  Brazil.  The  fruit  is  the  Avell-known 
Brazil  nut.  The  tree  is  one  of  the  most  majestic  in  the  South  American  forests, 
attaining  a  height  of  100  or  150  feet,  with  a  smooth  cylindrical  trunk,  about  3  or  1 
feet  in  diameter,  and  seldom  having  any  branches  till  near  tlie  top.     (J.  Smith.) 

Fiber. — Samples  of  the  bark  of  this  tree  were  exhibited  at  the  Pbiladeliihia  Exhibi- 
tion with  the  fiber  produced  from  it.  -'Used  as  a  substitute  for  oakum  for  calking 
vessels'"  (De  Gama). 

Betel-nut  palm  (see  Areca). 

Betina-da  (Iiid,).     The  fiber.     See  Melochia  arborca. 

Betula  bhojpattra.     Indian  Paper  Birch. 

Exogen.     Jlctuhtccn .     A  tree. 

An  Indian  species,  found  in  the  higher  ranges  of  the  Hinialayas,  in  India.  -'The 
bark  is  well  known  as  the  material  upon  which  the  ancient  Sanskrit  manuscripts  of 
northern  India  are  written." 

FiBF.K. — The  bark,  in  sheets,  used  as  a  substitute  for  i)ap(!r.  ••  I'heyoung  ))ranches 
are  plaited  into  twig  bridges"' ( Jra//).  It  is  also  used  as  wrapiuug  paper  and  in 
the  manufacture  of  the  llexible  pipe  stems  used  by  hookah  smokers.  Has  been  used 
for  umbrellas  and  for  clotliing  by  Hiudu  i^ilgrims  in  Kashmir. 

Betula  papyrifera     Paper  Birch.     Canoe  Birch. 

North  America.  XorlhwesterQ  and  uortheastern  in  United  States;  northward  iu 
British  America.  It  reaches  a  higher  latitude  than  most  other  North  American  trees; 
grows  to  a  height  of  00  feet.  "  The  wood  is  extensively  employed  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  spools,  shoe  lasts,  and  all  kinds  of  turnery;  lately  much  employed  for  paper 
]>ulp  "(/>'.  E.  Frnioir). 

The  thick  bark  of  this  tree,  whicli  can  be  readily  removed  from  a  long  clean  trunk 
iu  sprin".  is  the  one  employed  l)y  the  Indians  for  making  their  bark  canoes.  'I'lic 
bark  is  also  used  in  the  manufacture  of  suiall  ornaments,  such  as  napkin  rings,  bas- 
kets, pincushions,  etc.     (C  />'.  Smlworth.) 

Bhabiir  grass  (see  Iscluemuni). 
Bhanga  (^Suuscrit).     Cannabis  sativa. 


84  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

Bhatialjute  (Iiul.)-     See  Corchorus. 
Bhat  niggi  (Iiul.).     See  Wiksfr<nni(i. 

,  (Iiul.).     Thcspesia  populnea  and  Hihiscus  escuJentns. 
Bhindi  S 

Various  forms  of  the  wonl  are  used  in  different  proviiu-es,  and  for  hotli  speiies. 
Bible,  Fibers  of  the.     See  Ancient  Fibeis,  in  Introduction,  page  11. 
Biboci  (Bolivia).     See  Cotiratari. 
Bichu  (Ind.).      Urticn  dioica. 
Bignonia  viminalis.     Liane  a  CoiiDiiS,  of  tlie  T'lencli  colonies. 

lv\on«ii.  Jlii/iKiniuced'.  Climber. 
Many  species  of  tlie  genus  are  found  in  North  and  South  America.  They  are 
scandent,  tendrilled  ]»hints,  oftc^n  clinibiujr  to  the  toi)8  of  the  highest  trees.  7>.  rhni- 
Hrt/Ks  is  mentioned  in  IJernardin's  Catahiguo  as  a  cordage  substitute.  "Tlio  natives 
of  Frcncli  Huiana  use  the  tcuigh,  tiexihlo  .stems  of  /.'.  keirrc  as  a  substitute  for  ropes, 
and  from  strips  of  tliem  weave  various  kinds  of  baskets  and  broad-brimmed  hats" 
(A.iSmith).  B.  aqi(inuclia}i>i  ia  a  Brazilian  species.  "  From  the  young  branches  the 
natives  make  baskets  and  fishing-tackle"  (Savorgnan).     See  Tecoma. 

Bingo-i.     Ja])anese  matting  rush.     See  Juncns. 
Bira-bira  (Arg.).     Sec  Dciphnop.sls  Irffiiizanionis. 
Bissus.     The  ancient  Greek  name  of  tiax.     JAmim. 
Birch.     See  Tietnla. 
Bixa  orellana.     Aknatto.     The  Kocor. 

Exogeu.     B'uarid'.     Small  tree,  to  !>0  feet. 
Native  najies. —  rrnca  (Braz.);    hoiajliiomhi  (Beug.). 
Tropical  America.     Escaped  from  cultivation  in  India.     This  species  sujiplies  the 
well-knowu  Arnatto  dye. 

Fiber. — ''The  bark  yields  a  good  cordage"  (Walt).     I'huuuerated  in  the  State  of 
Para  (W.  ('.  E.,  1803)  among  the  species  that  yield  fibers  for  rope  making. 

Black  Ash.     Fraxinns  nigra. 

Black  Bunch  grass.     Hilariajdmc.sii. 

Black  Fiber  (Oeyl.).     Cari/otti  miti.s. 

Black  G-rama.     Muhlenberg  la  pniigenfi. 

Black  Reed  (Vict.).     See  Ghania. 

Black  Run  Palm  (Afr.).     See  Borassus. 

Black  sage.    See  Cordia. 

Blood  -wood.     See  Croton  gossypiffolkis. 

Blue  grass.     Poa  jiratcnsis. 

Blue  mahoe.     JlihiscKfi  elatiis. 

Blue  moor  grass  (Gt.  Brit.).     Molinia  cwridea. 

Bocca  di  Leone  (It.).     See  Aniirrhlnum  majus. 

Bockara  (of  Bernardin),  or  Bokhara  clover.     See  Md'dotua. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  85 

Boehmeria  spp.    Stingless  Nettles. 

This  genus  of  Uriicaceir  comprises  40  or  more  species  found  in  hotli  heniisplicies, 
aud  is  closely  allied  to  the  genus  Crtka,  the  plants  of  which  have  stinging  hairs. 
They  are  herlis  or  shriihs  producing  slender  stalks,  clothed  with  large,  ohovato 
leaves.  There  is  but  one  American  representative  of  the  genus,  Ikiehnieria  cijlUnh-ica 
(the  false  netth')?  »"  annual  plant  found  in  waste  lands  from  Ontario,  Canada,  to 
Minnesota  aud  southward  from  Florida  to  Kansas.  It  has  no  value  as  a  fiber  plant. 
B.  cauduta  is  a  Brazilian  species  used  only  medicinally,  and  J',  stipularis  is  found  in 
the  Sandwich  Islands,  its  bark  having  been  used  to  a  slight  extent  for  making 
"kapa,"  or  native  beaten  cloth.  An  allied  si>ev[efi,  I'ipliirHH  (juudicluiiidiainis,  {or- 
nierly  included  in  the  genus  Hoclimeria,  is  also  used  in  this  manner  by  the  natives  of 
these  islands.     Other  Indian  species  are  lipolystiichiid,  /-'.  sidd  folia,  />'.  didi/moynmr,  etc 

Among  the  species  native  to  India,  of  which  there  are  nearly  a  score,  are  fouiul 
some  better  liber  plants,  though  not  worthy  of  special  mention.  I  may  note,  how- 
ever, B.  ma(ro^>hyIU(,^\■hk^\l  abounds  from  Kumaou  to  the  Khasia  hills,  and  which 
yields  a  beautiful  fiber  nuich  prized  by  the  natives  for  fishing  nets.  B.  jylatyplnjUa 
is  a  south  Indian  sjiecies  which  produces  a  strong  cordage  bast,  and  B.  vialabarica  is 
found  in  the  tropical  forests  of  India,  Burma,  and  Ceylon.  This  species  yields  a  very 
tenacious  fiber  which  has  found  use  in  Ceylon  for  fishing  lines. 

The  commercially  important  species  of  Boehmeria  are  J>.  nirea  and  B.  ienacissima, 
full  descriptions  of  which  are  to  be  found  below.  See  fig.  1,  PI.  VIII,  tht^  ujiper 
portion  of  a  stalk  of  B.  virca,  showing  form  of  leaves. 

Regarding  the  identity  of  these  two  species,  particularly  in  relation  to  their  com- 
mon names,  so  much  confusion  has  existed  that  Dr.  Morris,  of  the  Royal  Gardens, 
Kew,  has  proposed  the  following  economic  classification,  which  has  been  adopted: 
Series  A — Boehmeria  nirea. 

1.  China  grass.     The  commercial  fiber,  hand  cleaned  in  China. 

2.  China  grass.     Stripped  bast  or  ribbons  (hand  or  machine). 

3.  China  grass      Fiber  prepared  (hand  or  machine). 
Series  B — Boehmeria  knacissima. 

4.  Ramie  or  Rhea.     Ribbons  or  stripped  bast  (hand  or  machine  cleaned). 
.5.  Ramie  or  Rhea.     Fiber  prepared  (either  hand  or  machine). 

It  should  be  further  uoteil  that  B.  nirea  is  the  temperate  and  8ubtroi)ical  species, 
while  B.  tenacissima  thrives  best  in  subtropical  and  tropical  climes. 

There  are  several  allied  s])ecies  which  jiroduco  superior  fiber,  among  which  may 
be  mentioned  Maoiiiia  pnya,  found  in  India.  See  also  Tonchardia  latifolia,  which 
produces  the  Olona  fiber  of  the  Sandwich  Islands,  a  textile  that  should  be  better 
known. 

Boehmeria  nivea.     China  (Irass. 

Exogen.      Urticacea'.     Shrub  5  to  8  feet  as  cultivated. 

Native  x.\mes. — The  following  names  have  been  used  indiscriminately  to  desig- 
nate the  two  commercial  species  of  Boehmeria  (see  economic   classification 
under  Boehmeria) :  China  grass,  Bhea,  Ramie  (Eng.) ;  Bamio  aud  Kamie  (Span.) ; 
Ortie  Blanche  sans  dards  de  Chine  (Fr.),  Ramie,  Rameh  (Java);  Tsjo,  Mao,  and 
others    (.Jap.);    Tchoti-ma  and   others  (China);    Klooi,    Caloee,    etc.   (Siam); 
Kanlhiira  (Beng.);  Poah  (Xepal) ;  Ovun  (Burm..),and  many  others. 
Indigenous  in  India,  and  probably  also  in  China,  .Japan,  and  the  Indian  Archijjel- 
ago,  l>ut  introduced  by  cultivation  into  the  warmer  parts  of  Europe  and  North  and 
South  America. 

The  China  grass  (/.'.  nivea)  is  a  shrubby  plant  with  the  habit  of  the  common  nettle, 
but  without  stinging  hairs.  There  are  numerous  straight  shoots  that  arise  from  the 
pereuuial  rootstock  to  a  height  of  4  to  8  feet.  The  leaves  are  on  long  petioles, 
l)roadIy  heart-shaped,  with  serrated  edges  ami  white,  downy  beneath.  The  seeds 
are  small,  and  produced  somewhat  sparingly.     This  is  the  original  ( 'hina  grass  plant 


86 


USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


so  loni^  cultivated  by  the  Chinese  tinder  the  name  of  Tchon  Ma.  There  are  two 
forms  of  this  plant.  One  is  the  China  grass  mentioned  above,  lloehmcria  nh^ca,  a  tem- 
perate, and  the  other,  ramie  or  rhea,  a  tropical,  plant,  known  as  Jl.  virra,  var.  tcnacis- 
sima.  It  wonld  he  well  to  jireserve  these  distinctions  in 
regard  to  the  lihef  also.  The  term  ramie,  or  rhea,  sliould 
only  be  apjilied  to  the  A^ariety  tenocissima.  This  dilt'ers  from 
the  type  by  its  more  robust  habit  and  larger  leaves,  ■which 
arc  green  on  both  sides.  This  cliaracter  easily  distinguishes 
it  from  China  grass,  which  has  leaves  white-fcdtcd  beneath. 
Tlic  distinction  here  suggested  is  an  im])ortant  one.  Kamie 
or  rhea  is  a  native  of  Assam  and  the  Malay  Islands.  It 
thri\  es  only  in  tropical  countries,  and  it  is  useless  to  culti- 
\  ate  it  elsewhere.  At  Kcw  it  has  been  found  that  while 
ramie  or  rhea  (/)'.  iiirea  var.  icnaciasima)  can  not  be  grown  in 
the  open  air,  the  Cliina  grass  (Jl.  uirca)  remains  in  the 
ground  all  the  winter,  and  furnishes  a  crop  of  shoots,  but 
only  once  in  the  year.  The  value  of  the  ramie  or  rhea  iiber, 
as  com])ared  with  Cliina  grass,  has  not  been  carefully  and 
liilly  investigated.  Ramie  from  India  has,  however,  not 
jiroved  so  valuable,  so  far,  as  the  China  grass.  In  tlie  largo 
mass  of  literature  on  Cliina  grass  there  is  considerable  con- 
fusion between  it  and  ramie  or  rhea,  and  the  results  in 
consefiuence  lose  their  value.     (Dr.  7).  Morris.) 

Bast  Fihkh. — The  fiber  of  China  grass  is  strong  and  dur- 
able, is  of  all  fibers  least  affected  by  moisture,  and  from 
these  characteristics  must  take  tirst  rank  in  value  as  a  textile 
substance.  It  has  three  times  the  strength  of  Russian  hemp, 
while  its  (ilaments  can  be  separated  almost  to  the  fineness 
of  silk.  In  manufacture  it  has  been  spun  on  various  forms 
of  textile  machinery,  also  used  in  connection  with  cotton, 
wofd,  and  silk,  and  can  be  emjiloyed  as  a  substitute  in  cer- 
tain forms  of  manufacture  for  all  of  these  textiles,  and  for 
llax  also,  where  elasticity  is  not  essential.  It  likewise  pro- 
duces superior  ])aper,  the  fineness  and  close  texture  of  its 
pulp  making  it  a  most  valuable  bank-note  paper.  The  fiber 
can  be  dyed  in  all  desirable  shades  or  colors,  some  examples 
having  the  luster  and  brilliancy  of  silk.  In  China  and  .Tapaii 
it  is  extracted  by  hand  Labor;  it  is  not  only  manufactured 
into  cordage,  fish  lines,  nets,  and  similar  coarse  manufac- 
tures, but  woven  into  the  finest  and  most  beautiful  of  fabrics, 
Thespccific  gravity  of  ramie'  yarn  is  less  than  thatof  linen 
yarn  in  the  ratio  of  6  to  10,  so  that  1  kilogram  linen  yarn 
No.  10  measures  0,000  meters,  Avhilo  the  same  weight  of  ramie 
yarn  measures  10,000  meters.  This  iieculiarity  lessens  the 
api^areut  dill'erence  in  the  price  of  the  two  yarns.  On  the 
other  hand,  ramie  yarn  is  heavier  than  cotton  in  the  ratio  of 
G  to  5.  Ramie  yarn  is  easily  distinguished  from  other  yarns 
by  its  high  luster  and  silky  appearance,  in  which  it  excels 
linen  and  cotton.  Ramie  fibers  are  distinguished  from  all 
FiG..'!2.— A  i.iopeily  gii.w  u  Other  fibers  by  their  great  length,  usually  from  10  to  1.5  ceuti- 
stalk  of  ramie.  meters  (often  25  to  40  centimeters  or  more),  by  a  certain 

etraightness  and  stiffness,  and  by  the  considerable  breadth 


s-^j 


'  The  term  ramie,  used  in  this  statement,  as  well  as  in  those  which  follow,  refers  to 
the  fiber  from  either  species  of  lloehmcria,  Ramie  proper  being  H.  vivea  var.  tenactssima, 
while  China  grass  is  Jl.  nivea. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  87 

of  from  0.04  to  O.OB  millimeter  (flax,  0.016;  cotton,  O.Oll  to  0.021 ;  silk,  0.009  to  0.020). 
{J!r.  H((ssach.) 

History. — The  active  interest  in  China  grass,  ramie,  and  rhea  began  in  1869,  when 
a  reward  of  £5,000  was  offered  by  the  Government  of  India  for  the  Ijest  machine  with 
which  to  decorticate  the  geeen  stalks.  The  lirst  exhibition  and  trial  of  machines 
took  place  in  1872,  rcsnlting  in  ntter  failure.  The  reward  was  again  offered,  and  in 
1879  a  second  official  trial  was  held,  at  which  ten  machines  competed,  though  none 
filled  the  requirements,  and  subsecjnently  the  offer  was  withdrawn.  The  immediate 
result  Avas  to  stimulate  invention  iu  many  countries,  and  from  1869  to  the  present 
time  inventors  have  been  untiring  in  their  efforts  to  protluce  a  successful  machine. 

The  first  records  of  Chinese  shipments  of  fiber  to  European  markets  show  that  in 
1872  200  or  300  tons  of  the  fiber  were  sent  to  London,  valued  at  £80  per  ton,  or  about 
$400.  India  also  sent  small  shipments,  but  there  was  a  light  demand  and  prices  fell 
to  £30  to  £40  per  ton  for  Chinese  and  £19  to  £30  for  the  India  product.  In  a  letter 
from  Messrs.  Idc  &  Christie,  the  London  fiber  brokers,  discussing  the  point  of  demand 
and  supidy,  received  in  1890,  it  was  stated  that  ramie  ribbons  had  at  no  time  been 
shipped  to  Eurojie  from  any  country  iu  large  quantity.  Three  hundred  or  400  tons 
during  the  preceding  five  years  would  represent  the  maximum  quantity  brought 
from  China,  while  India  and  other  producing  countries  had  sent  little  more  than 
sample  lots  and  trial  parcels.  The  largest  lot  of  ramie  ever  received  at  any  one 
time  was  in  October,  1888,  when  120  to  130  tons  of  ribbons  were  oftered  in  the  Lon- 
don market.  There  was  nothing  like  competition  for  it,  and  it  was  sold  for  £8  to 
£9,  less  than  half  what  it  cost  in  China. 

Experiments  in  manufacture  iu  England  date  back  to  the  sixties.  There  were 
difficulties,  however,  in  the  way  of  preparing  the  fiber  and  in  adapting  machinery 
for  spinning  it  that  made  these  processes  too  costly,  and  after  fortunes  had  been 
wasted  the  effort  was  abandoned. 

Ramie  seed  is  said  by  Favier  to  have  been  first  introduced  into  France  in  1836, 
and  in  1844  plants  Avero  brought  from  China  by  the  surgeon  of  the  war  ship  Faroriie, 
which  were  grown  in  the  acclimating  gardens.  While  one  writer  claims  that  the 
plant  was  first  brought  to  the  gardens  of  Europe  in  1733,  Favier  states  that  Dr. 
Fras  cultivated  the  iilant  iu  the  botanical  gardens  of  Munich  in  18."jO,  and  that  it 
Avas  grown  iu  Belgium  iu  1860. 

Introduction  into  the  I'nited  States  dates  back  to  1855,  but  the  records  seem  to 
show  that  it  did  not  obtain  a  foothold  in  Mexico  until  1867,  the  year  in  which  the 
first  American  ramie  machine  was  lirought  to  public  attention.  It  is  interesting  to 
note  that  the  first  shipment  of  plants  into  France  in  considerable  number  was  from 
America,  10,000  plants  haA'ing  been  imported  for  distribution  in  France  and  Algiers 
in  1868. 

The  first  French  ofiflcial  trials  took  place  in  1888,  followed  by  the  trials  of  1889,  in 
Paris,  at  Avhich  the  writer  was  present,  and  which  are  recorded  in  Report  No,  1  of 
the  Fiber  Investigations  series.  Another  trial  was  held  in  1891,  and  in  the  same 
year-tho  first  official  trials  iu  America  took  place,  in  the  State  of  Vera  Cruz,  in 
Mexico,  folloAved  the  next  year  by  the  first  official  trials  of  American  machines  in 
the  United  States;  these  being  followed  by  the  trials  of  1894.  The  history  of  the 
experiments  in  cultiA'atiou  in  the  United  States  are  recorded  or  referred  to  in  the 
reports  issued  by  the  Office  of  Fiber  Investigations  of  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture,  notably  Nos.  1,  2,  and  7,  to  which  reference  should  be  made  for  more 
detailed  statements  than  are  here  i^reseuted. 

Cl'LTiVATiox. — In  general  terms  it  may  be  said  that  the  ramie  plant  requires  a 
hot,  moist  climate,  with  no  extremes  of  temperature,  and  a  naturally  rich,  damp,  but 
ncA'er  a  Avet,  soil,  the  necessary  moisture  to  be  supplied  by  frequent  rains  or  by 
irrigation;  in  other  words,  such  a  climate  and  soil  that,  when  the  groAving  season 
has  commenced,  the  growth  will  be  rapid  and  continuous.  In  the  United-States  the 
best  localities,  so  far  as  expei-iment  has  determined,  are  jiortions  of  Florida,  Mis- 
sissippi, Louisiana,  and  Texas  on  the  Gulf,  and  central  California  on  the  Pacific 


USEFUL  FIBER  PLANTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


4 


^ 


Coast.  Tlu!  other  Gulf  States,  doubtless,  will  jirove  equally  favorable  to  this  culture 
wlien  more  extensive  experiments  have  been  undertakeu  than  are  now  recorded. 
Regarding-  the  northern  limit  of  commercial  culture  it  is  difficult  to  make  positive 
statements.  The  plant  thrives  in  South  Carolina,  and  it  is  fair  to  8up]iose  that  two 
annual  crops  are  possible,  though  the  quality  and  yield  of  the  iiber  can  only  be 
ascertained  to  a  certainty  by  careful  tests  of  the  x»roduct  of  both  crops.  North  of 
this  State  commercial  culture  is  hardly  possible.  Intelligently  conducted  experi- 
ments in  ^Missouri  have  demonstrated  that  but  a  single  crop  of  filier,  of  doubtful 
value,  can  be  secured  in  a  season  in  that  latitude,  while  atteiuptcd  niltiire  in  the 
State  of  New  .Jersey,  with  the  aid  of  a  State  bounty,  resulted  in  nothing.  In  China 
the  commercial  crop  is  produced  between  latitudes  which  in 
this  country  form  very  nearly  the  northern  and  southern 
boundaries  of  I^onisiana.  Fig.  80  is  a  properly  grown  stalk 
of  ramie,  which  matured  seed  in  ten  weeks  in  Louisiana. 
(Sec  also  fig.  32).  Fig.  31  is  a  stalk  of  ramie,  which  grew 
through  an  entire  season  on  the  grounds  of  the  Department 
of  Agriculture  in  Washington  without  even  blossoming,  Avliile 
the  i)lants  branched  to  such  an  extent  that  the  stalks  were 
totally  ruined  for  liber.  In  no  country  are  the  stalks  cut 
for  fiber  until  mature,  for  if  cut  before  proper  maturity  the 
portion  of  the  stalk  which  is  still  growing  and  green  and  suc- 
culent can  not  produce  fiber.  These  facts  dis])rove,  in  toto, 
the  idea  that  ramie  can  be  cultivated  for  its  fiber  as  a  jiaying 
industry  in  any  section  where  straight,  ])roi)eily-matured 
stalks,  free  from  branches,  can  not  be  grown,  and  produce  at 
least  two  annual  crops. 

In  the  Gulf  States  ramie  has  been  grown  experimentally  in 
a  great  variety  of  soils,  from  the  liglit  sandy  uplands  to  the 
rich  black  lands  of  the  Louisiana  bottoms,  though  light, 
sandy,  alluvial  soils  have  always  given  the  best  results.  In 
California  deej)  alluvial,  sandy,  or  loamy  lands  which,  when 
well  prepared,  Avill  hold  their  moisture  through  the  growing 
season,  or  that  can  be  irrigated,  are  most  commonly  selected. 
Dr.  Hilgard,  director  of  the  California  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station,  says  only  strong  soils  can  be  exi)ected  to  pro- 
duce in  one  season  one  crop  of  10  tons  of  stalks  of  any  kind, 
and  that  few  can  continue  to  produce  such  crojis  for  many 
years  without  substantial  returns  to  the  land,  no  matter  how 
fertile  originally.  Among  the  strongest  soils  in  the  State  are 
those  containing  more  or  less  of  "alkali,''  and,  as  these  are 
mostly  valley  lands,  the  question  of  their  adaptation  to  ramie 
culture  is  important.  He  considers  that  the  plant  will  stand 
alkali  providdl  it  is  not  of  the  black  kind,  viz,  carbonate  of 
soda. 

In  all  countries  where  ramie  has  been  grown  commercially 
or  experimentally  the  necessity  for  heavily  enriching  the  soil  by  the  application  of 
the  farm  manures  or  chemical  fertilizers  is  emphasized,  for  successful  ramie  culture 
is  an  impossibility  on  impoverished  land.  Where  it  is  difficult  to  obtain  sufficient 
(juautities  of  manure  it  is  recommended  to  collect  and  burn  all  refuse  of  decortica- 
tion and  retiu'n  the  ashes  to  the  soil.  The  jiroportion  of  mineral  constituents  found 
in  the  liber  which  is  taken  away  is  very  small.  The  French  writers  attach  great 
importance  to  the  use  of  leaves  as  fertilizing  material,  and  as  these  amount  to  almost 
half  of  the  green  weight  of  the  crop,  the  advantage  of  such  a  practice;  will  be  readily 
appreciated.  Well-decomposed  stable  manures  and  well-ground  chemical  fertilizers, 
guano,  and  oil  cake  are  all  used  with  success  upon  French  ramie  plantations.  The 
practice  is  to  spread  these  ui)on  the  land,  the  rains  or  irrigation  carrying  the  nutritive 


Fig.  33.— All  iiniiroii- 
erly  grown  .stalk  iif 
ramie. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE. 


89 


elements  to  the  roots  of  the  plants.  A'loiit  7,000  pouuils  of  stable  luaiinro,  or  ~>'2r) 
to  615  pounds  ol"  chemical  I'eitili/.eis  or  oil  cake  are  nsed  per  acre.  Allison  recom- 
mends oOO  ponuds  of  cotton-seed  meal  and  oOO  pounds  of  kainit  per  .acre. 

The  plant  is  propaujated  hy  seeds,  l>y  cuttings,  or  hy  layers,  and  lij'  division  of  the 
roots.  When  produced  from  seed,  oi)en-air  planting  can  hardly  he  relied  upon, 
plants  started  in  the  hotbed  giving  the  best  results.  After  planting,  the  seeds  are 
covered  thinly  witb  silted  earth  and  kept  shaded  from  the  sun  until  the  young  plants 
are  2  or  3  inches  high.  In  five  or  six  weeks  they  will  bo  strong  enough  to  trans- 
plant to  the  field.  The  most  practical  method  is  propagation  by  a  division  of  the 
roots  of  old  or  fully  matured  plants.     (See  fig.  3.').) 

In  preparing  the  land  for  a  plantation,  thorough  tilth — that  is,  deep  plowing  and 
cross  harrowing — is  essential,  which  should  be  done  in  the  fall.  The  ground  is  fre- 
quently broken  to  a  depth  of  lo  inches  or  more,  but  never  less  than  a  depth  of  12 
inches,  to  secure  good  results,  and  liuapy  land  is  rolled.  Before  planting,  the  ground 
is  again  cross  plowed,  harrowed,  and  rolled,  about  the 
1st  of  l-'ebruary  being  a  good  time  for  the  work.  The 
roots  are  usually  set  in  rows  1  to  5  feet  apart,  and  1 
foot  to  1.")  inches  in  the  row,  although  practice  differs 
in  ditterent  sections. 

The  estimated  cost  of  establishing  a  ramie  planta- 
tion in  the  United  States  per  acre  is  about  $60,  inclnd- 
iug  purchase  of  8,000  roots  at  $35,  and  about  !j<10  for 
fertilizers.  The  crop  is  ready  to  cnt  when  the  leaves 
can  be  readily  detached  by  passing  the  hand  down  the 
stems  and  when  the  base  of  the  stalks  begius  to  turn 
brown.  In  France  the  first  crop  is  cut  from  June  to 
.July,  and  the  second  from  September  to  October.  See 
chapter  on  culture,  in  different  countries,  in  Eeport  7. 
Fiber  Investigations  series,  published  by  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

Yield. — The  yield  per  acre  of  green  stalks  with 
leaves  has  been  iilaced  at  8  to  10  tons,  or  say  25  tons 
for  two  cuttings  under  the  most  fav(uable  circum- 
stances. A  calculation  based  on  the  above  figures 
places  the  yield  of  dry  fiber  per  acre  at  about  1,000 
pounds  for  two  annual  cuttings,  provided  that  the 
crop  has  been  properly  gi'own.  Mr.  Charles  Eiviere 
(director  of  the  botanic  garden  at  Algiers)  states  that 
1,000  kilograms  (2,200  pounds)  of  stalks  and  leaves  Fio.  :i4.— Clu.<ters  of  flower  ra- 
will  yield  520  kilograms  (1,141  pounds)  of  stripped  cemcs  ..frami.-. 

stalks;  the  520  kilograms  of  stripped  stalks  will  give 

104  kilograms  (228.8  pounds)  of  dry  stalks,  and  these  will  yield  20.8  kilograms  (45.7 
pounds)  of  decorticated  i)roduct  (a  little  less  than  20  per  cent),  and  this  weight  will 
give  11.2  kilogi-ams  (24. (i  pounds)  of  degummed  filasse.  "This  is  a  yiehl  which  I  have 
proven  in  all  ray  experiments  "  ( De  Landtsheer).  This  means  that  a  long  ton  of  green 
ramie  stalks  with  leaves  will  yield  46i  pounds  of  decorticated  fiber,  which  will  give 
25  pounds  of  degummed  filler,  the  figures  forming  a  ready  basis  of  calculation  when 
the  total  weight  of  an  acre  of  stalks  is  known. 

Extraction  of  the  Fiber. — There  are  but  three  ways  in  which  the  fiber  of  China 
grass  and  ramie  may  be  extracted:  By  hand  stripping,  as  practiced  in  China;  by 
boiling  the  stalks  in  water  or  solutions,  which  also  requires  a  certain  amount  of  hand 
manipulation;  and  by  machinery.  The  stripping  by  hand  can  only  be  made  to  pay 
where  wages  are  down  to  the  level  of  these  paid  in  China,  and  almost  the  same  may 
be  said  of  boiling  processes,  on  account  of  the  after  handling  necessary  to  separate 
trash  from  fiber  when  the  bark  separation  has  been  accomplished.  As  far  as  the 
Department  has  knowledge  of  new  machines,  this  phase  of  the  raiuie  question  is  still 


90 


USEFUL  FIBER  PLANTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


unsettled,  though  progress  is  being  made  from  year  to  year,  as  ohl  machines  are 
im]>roved  and  ne\v  ones  are  devised.  For  further  considerations  of  this  subject,  see 
Appendix  A. 

Degumming  of  thk  Raw  Fibkr. — Before  tlie  fiber  can  be  combed,  it  is  subjected 
to  a  cliemical  treatment  called  degumming.  Through  the  researches  of  the  late  M. 
Fremy,  member  of  the  French  Institute,  it  has  been  shown  that  the  gums  and  cements 
holding  together  the  filaments  of  ramie  are  essentially  composed  of  pectose,  cntose, 
and  vasculose,  while  the  filier  itself  is  coni])oscd  of  fibrose,  cellulose,  and  its  deriva- 
tives. The  theory  of  degumming,  tlierefore,  is  to  dissolve  and  wash  ont  the  gums 
without  attacking  tlie  cellulose.  In  order  to  eliminate  the  vasculose  and  cutose  it 
is  necessary  to  employ  alkaline  oleates  or  canstic  alkalies,  employed  under  pressure, 
.and  even  bisulphates  and  hydrochlorates.  The  gums  being  dissolved,  the  epidermis 
is  detached  and  can  bo  mechanically  separated  from  the  layers  of  fil)er  by  washing. 
The  larger  number  of  degumming  processes  in  ])resent  use  embody  these  general 
principles. 

French  ex])erimenters  have  shown  that  it  costs  no  nnn'o  to  degum  the  China  grass 

tiiat  will  fill  a  kier  or  tank  of  certain  dimen- 
sions than  the  charge  of  simple  stripped 
ribbons  that  will  fill  the  same  tank.  Yet 
the  weight  of  China  grass  that  will  fill  this 
kier  Avill  be  almost  doiil)le  that  of  the 
stripped  bark,  and  while  the  kier  of  China 
grass  will  .show  a  shrinkage  (waste)  of  only 
;W  per  cent,  let  us  say,  the  loss  from  the 
strip])ed  bark  may  be  6G  per  cent.  To  state 
this  difl'erently,  a  half-ton  charge  (1,120 
pounds,  French)  of  China  grass  may  give 
775  pounds  of  degummed  liber,  the  expense 
of  degumming  (at  $20  per  charge,  let  us 
say)  being  about  2?^  cents  per  pound.  Now 
the  same  kier,  when  charged  with  simple 
strijiped  bark,  will  hold  only  060  pounds 
and  give  but  204  jiounds  of  degummed 
filasse.  But,  as  the  cost  of  degumming  the 
contents  of  the  tank  will  be  the  same  in 
both  instances,  the  last  operation  has  cost 
7i  cents  per  pound  of  pure  fiber  turned  out. 
The  conmiercial  value  of  the  degummed 
fiber  is  stated  according  to  French  figures 
at  about  13^  cents  per  pound. 
Manufacture. — It  is  not  important  to 
go  into  the  details  of  manufacture  here.  This  branch  of  the  industry  has  pa.ssed 
the  stage  of  exiierimcnt  and  is  an  established  fact.  At  the  present  time  there  are 
two  filatures  or  sjunning  mills  in  France,  two  in  Germany,  one  in  Austria,  one  in 
Switzerland,  and  two  English  companies,  one  of  which — the  ISoyle  Fiber  Syndicate — 
operates  at  Long  Eaton.  Probably  the  most  successful  spinning  mills  are  those 
operated  at  Emmendingen,  Baden,  Germany. 

Uses  of  tiik  Fiueij. — As  to  the  ])ossibilitie8  of  ramie  manufacture  there  seems  to 
be  no  limit.  Stuff  goods  for  men's  wear,  upholstery,  curtains,  laces  and  embroideries, 
plushes  and  velvets,  stockings,  underclothing,  table  damask,  napkins,  handkerchiefs, 
shirtings,  sheetings,  sail  duck,  carpets,  cordage,  fishing  nets,  and  yarns  and  threads 
for  various  uses  not  enumerated,  bank-note  paper,  etc.  Regarding  these  various 
uses  of  ramie  fiber  in  manufacture,  however,  M.  Roux  says  we  should  not  conclude 
that  this  textile  is  destined  to  be  employed  so  largely.  The  cost  of  its  preparation 
will  always  prevent  its  common  use  as  a  substitute  for  the  textiles  that  can  be  more 
chea]dy  grown  and  prepared.     He  concludes  that  Avhile  it  has  brilliancy  it  has  not 


. — lianiio  roots  ln'Coic  siibilivision. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  91 

the  elasticity  of  wool  ami  silk,  nm-  tlio  llexibility  of  cotton;  but  it  will  always  be 
jireferred  for  raakiiifj  articles  n^fiuiring  the  strength  to  resist  tlie  wear  and  tear  of 
washing  or  exposure  to  weather.  This  facility  to  imitate  all  other  texdles  is  one 
of  the  principal  causes  which  has  kept  back  the  development  of  the  ramie  industry; 
and  if,  instead  of  launching  out  into  a  series  of  exporiments,  attention  had  been  con- 
centrated upon  the  exclusive  manufacture  of  tliose  articles  to  whidi  the  ])ro]iertie8 
of  the  plant  were  peculiarly  and  naturally  adapted,  this  industi'y  would  probiibly  be 
in  a  more  advanced  condition  than  it  is  at  present.  The  Dc]iartment  of  Agriculture 
has  held  to  this  position  since  its  work  in  this  held  was  begun.  The  folly  of  build- 
ing up  a  ramie  manufacturing  industry  <m  a  false  basis,  that  is,  employing  the  textile 
as  a  substitute  for  something  else,  is  to  be  deprecated.  The  liber  should  be  used  in 
those  articles  of  economic  necessity  which  would  appear  on  the  market  as  ranue,  that 
any  distinctive  merit  th.e  textile  may  jiossess  will  become  known,  not  only  to  the 
ramie  trade,  hut  to  consumers  of  the  product. 

AuTHf)UiTiES. — The  publications  upon  this  subject  are  legion.  A  few  principal 
English  references  are  therefore  given,  viz :  Report  on  Rhea  Fiber  (  Watso)i.),  London, 
1875;  various  articles  in  Bull.  Royal  Kcw  Gardens  (.l/ornx.'t ;  Die.  Ec.  Prod.  Ind. 
( Watt.) ;  Spon's  Enc.,  pt.  o ;  Reports  1,  2,  and  7,  Fiber  Investigations  series,  U.  S.  Dejit. 
Ag.  (Dodfje.);  Bulletin  of  the  Experiment  Station  of  Louisiana,  No.  ii2{Stiibhs.),  and 
of  the  CalilVnnia  Experiment  Station,  Xos.  HO  and  94.  {irthiard.)  See  also  the  Frencli 
publications  of  Favier,  De  Landtsheer,  jNIichotte,  Ronx,  and  of  the  Ministry  of  Agri- 
culture. 

Boehnieria  tenacissima.     Ramie,  or  Ehea. 

Tropical  variety  of  B.  nirca.     Dr.  Morris  states  that  the  term  ramie,  or  rhea,  shonld 
only  1)6  applied  to  teiiaclsaimii,  which  may  be  known  liy  its  robust  habit  and  larger  ' 
leaves,  which  ai-e  green  on  both  surfaces,  and  which  do  not  show  the  silvery  white 
under  surface  characterizing  /.'.  nirca,  or  the  plant  belonging  to  a  temperate  climate. 
For  general  statements  as  to  cultivation,  etc.,  see  the  preceding  siiecies. 

Bog  Moss  (See  Sphaf/niim  ct/mhi folium). 

Bois  (Fr.).  =  wood. 

ceij),  Ocoiea  sieheri ;  dentellc,  Lagetta  liniearia; Vovie,  Guaznma 

iilmifolio  ;  snnf/,  see  Crolou. 

Bola  (Beiig'.).  See  Hibiscus  tiUaceiis. 
Bolobolo  (W.  Afr.).  See  Honchenya. 
Bombax  ceiba.    God-tree.    Yaxche. 

Exogen.     Malvacew.     A  large  tree. 

This  species  of  liomhnx,  or  silk  cotton  tree,  was  considered  by  A.  Smith,  in  the 
Treasury  of  Botany,  to  be  the  same  as  Eriodendron  mifractiiosum.  Examples  of 
silk  cotton  labeled  Ceiha  were  received  from  the  Mexican  exhibit  at  the  World's 
C(dumbian  Exhibition  of  1893.  On  the  authority  of  Dr.  Ernst,  of  the  Xational 
Museum  of  Caracas,  ''  Ceiba"  fiber  is  stated  to  be  the  ])roduct  of  Bomhar  ceiha,  and 
is  applied  to  the  same  uses  as  the  silk  cottons  from  allied  species.  The  Pernviau 
name  is  Hiiimhac/Kiro-ceiho. 

Surface  Fiber. — Distinguished  by  its  yellowish  color  and  lustrous  silky  appear- 
ance. Like  other  seed  hairs,  it  can  not  be  spun  unless  mixed  with  other  lil)ers. 
"  Used  in  the  manufacture  of  mattresses,  cushions,  etc.,  and  the  bark  is  useful  for 
cordage"  (Dorca).  See  Ceiba,  Bombax  malabaricum,  and  Eriodendron  anfractuosum, 
in  the  alphaljetical  arrangement. 

Bombax  malabaricum.     Hed  Silk  Cotton. 

Syn.,  Sahnalia  malabarica. 
The  Simal  Tree  of  India.     Abounds  throughout  flic  hotter  forests  r>f  India  and 
Burma;  distributed  to  .lava  and  Sumatra. 


92  USEFUL  FIBER  PLANTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 

The  fruit  of  the  various  species  of  Bomliax  is  a  woody  capsule  Avith  divisions  con- 
taining numerous  seeds,  each  seed  surrounded  by  a  mass  of  silky  hairs,  which,  Avheu 
collected  after  the  opening  of  the  pod,  produce  the  "silk  cotton." 

SuuFACK  FlBKR. — The  silk-like  down,  or  seed  hairs,  described  above  and  known 
as  Simal  cotton  may  be  used  as  upholstery  material,  for  stuffing  pillows,  etc. 
The  "cotton"  is  similar,  though  inferior,  to  the  kapok  of  commerce  derived  from 
Eriodendron  nnfracliiosiim,  which  sec. 

Fiber  too  short  and  soft  to  be  sjiuu.  The  smoothness  of  the  cotton  jirevents  cohe- 
sion or  felting,  and  hence  in  the  textile  industries  could  only  be  used  to  mix  with 
others,  imparting  a  silky  gloss  to  the  fabric.  It  has  also  been  talked  of  as  a  pa])er 
fiber.     The  inner  bark  of  the  tree  yields  a  good  liber  suitable  for  cordage.    (  Watt.) 

*Specimeiiii. — ?Ierb.  Col.  Univ.,  N.  Y. ;  Bast  liber,  Bot.  Mns.  Harv.  Univ. 

Bombax  mungaba.     Silk  Cotton  of  Brazil. 

A  tree,  80  to  100  feet,  common  along  the  banks  of  the  Amazon  and  Rio  Xegro.  Its 
frnit  is  about  8  inches  long  by  1  wid(^,  and  of  a  clear  brick  color.  The  silk  cotton 
surrounding  the  seeds  is  light  brown  in  color.  It  has  fonnd  limited  use  as  a  material 
for  stufling  cushions.  In  a  catalogue  of  the  products  of  Brazilian  forests,  by  Jose 
Saldanha  da  Gama  (Phil.  Int.  Exh.,  1870),  it  is  stated  that  tliis  tree  furnishes  in  its 
bark  fibrous  material  for  coarse  rope,  as  well  as  vegetable  silk  in  its  i)od8.  He  also 
mentions  Eriodendron  samanma  as  "the  largest  tree  of  the  Amazon,  the  fruit  con- 
taining a  silk  much  sought  for  mattresses." 

A  species  of  Jiomhax  silk-cotton  was  received  from  the  ^'enezuelan  Department, 
\V.  C.  E.,  18J».S,  named  Sibiicara  wool,  and  another  example  was  labeled  "I.ana  del 
Tambor,  the  silky  wool  Avhich  envelops  the  seeds  of  liomhax  ciitnanense.  It  can  not 
be  spun,  but  is  used  for  making  pillows."     (Ernst.) 

Bombax  pubescens.    The  I^mbira-guassu. 

This  is  also  calhd  the  Emhir-nssd  in  Brazil.  It  is  fonnd  in  the  province  of  Minas 
Geraes,  and  attains  a  height  of  2.5  to  30  feet. 

Bast  Fihei:. — This  species  has  a  tough,  fibrous  bark,  which  yields  quite  a  strong 
fiber,  resemlding  jute  in  color,  and  very  useful  for  making  ropes  and  cordage.  A 
surface  fiber  is  also  oT)tained  from  its  seed  capsules,  mucli  enijjloyed  in  Sao  Paulo  for 
filling  bolsters  and  mattresses.  The  tree  is  found  in  secluded  places  and  blossoms  in 
the  winter. 

Lofgren  mentions  another  species  (B.  f/raciUpes),  which  is  found  in  brambly  locali- 
ties along  the  river  banks,  and  which  also  supplies  fiber. 

Bombay  Aloe  (see  Agave  viviparn). 
Bombonaje  (S.  Am.).     See  Garludovica  j)almata. 
Booba  Palm  (Braz.).     See  Iriartea  exorrhiza. 
Borassus  flabellifer.     Palmyra  Palm. 

Endogen.     I'almw.     Tall  palm. 

Xativk  names. — Tal,    Tari,  etc.  (Hind.);   Tal-gas  (Ceyl.);    Tan,  hinn,   (Burm.), 
and  others.     lu  west  Africa  known  as  the  Black  Run  Palm. 
Found  in  Ceylon  and  the  Indian  Arcliipelago ;  throughout  tro])ical  India,  in  Bengal, 
and  Northwest  Provinces.    Cultivated  in  Ceylon.    Also  ioimd  in  tropical  west  Africa. 
Stuuctukal  Fiber. — This  is  obtained  from  the  base  of  the  petioles,  or  the  sheath- 
ing leafstalks.      It  is  stiff,  harsh,  wiry,  and  resembles  the  bass  and  jilfissaha  fibers  of 
commerce,  particularly  the  Brazilian  forms.     A  trade  name  is  bassine. 

It  came  into  notice  as  a  commercial  article  in  1891,  when  the  high  prices  of  jxas- 
saha  induced  the  introduction  of  substitutes.  At  that  time  even  split  rattan,  stained 
black,  was  reciuisitioned  as  a  brush  fiber.  Palmyra  fiber  has  steadily  increased  in 
quantity,  and,  contrary  to  what  was  at  first  anticipated,  it  has  also  risen  in  value. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOCJUE.  93 

I'aliiiyra  now  has  practically  taken  th  -  place  of  west  African  bass.  The  latter  on 
the  Ifith  of  September,  1805,  was  "dnll,  business  small,  £14  to  £23  per  ton."  Pal- 
myra fiber  on  the  other  hand  was:  "Good,  £26  to  £34;  medium,  £22  to  £25:  com- 
mon, £15  to  £19  per  ton"  {Dr.  ]).  J/o?t/.s). 

The  fiber  extracted  from  the  leafstalks  is  used  for  rope  and  twine  makin.<;,  and 
may  also  be  used  for  paper.  This  fiber  is  strong  and  wiry,  and  is  about  2  feet  long. 
In  Ceylon  it  is  extracted  and  the  ropes  and  string  largely  used  for  cattle  yokes  and 
other  agricultural  purposes  are  made  of  it.  In  Madras  it  is  also  nuide  into  rope  and 
twine.  In  P.engal  the  trees  are  too  scattered  to  admit  of  an  extended  trade  in  this 
fiber.  The  long  cord-like  and  dark-colored  fibrovascular  bundles  are  carefully 
extracted,  however,  while  preparing  dugouts,  etc.  By  the  fishermen  tlieso  are  made 
into  invisible  fish  traps.  (  Wait.)  Employed  in  the  United  States  as  a  brush  mats- 
rial,  and  imported  in  bundles  of  prepared  fiber. 

Every  part  of  the  plant  is  employed  in  one  Avay  or  another,  some  800  uses  having 
been  enumerated.  Further  accounts  in  the  Die.  Ec.  Prod.  Ind. ;  Cantor  Lectures, 
London,  1895. 

^Specimens  of  the  fibers  were  received  from  the  Ceylon  court,  W.  C.  E.,  1893. 

Bow^string  hemp  (see  Sansevicria). 

Brachystegia,  si)p.    UctAnda  Bark  Cloth  Trees. 

Exogens.     Lefjumlnoaa'.     Trees,  20-50  feet. 

Native  names:  The  several  species  are  known  variously  as  Mecomha,  Matondo, 
Motondo,  M'Cheiiga,  and  others. 

Found  iu  the  Uganda  country,  Africa,  several  species  being  referred  to  in  the  Bul- 
letin of  the  Royal  Kew  Gardens  for  1892,  from  which  this  account  is  reproduced. 
The  trees  produce  a  bark  cloth. 

Bast  Fibki:.  Messrs.  Speke  and  Grant,  in  their  expedition  to  tlie  sources  of  the 
Nile,  1860-1863,  made  some  interesting  notes  on  the  preparation  and  uses  of  cloth 
from  this  source.  They  say  of /Jrac/ii/s/c^/iVf  sjyica'Jarmis  Benth.,  that  it  is  alight, 
graceful  tree  of  20  to  40  feet  high,  common  in  rich  forests,  and  is  known  in  the 
Robeho  Mountains,  Zanzibar,  under  the  name  of  " M'chentja"  or  "  M'ticnr/a,''  the  bark 
of  which  is  made  into  kilts,  cloths,  bandboxes,  huge  grain  stores,  matclies,  roofing 
for  camp  huts,  etc. ;  they  also  add  that  a  blood-red  juice  exudes  on  cutting  the  bark. 
These  same  explorers  collected  slight  herbarium  material  at  Keegwah,  in  lat.  5"^  5' 
S.,  of  what  is  so  far  determined  as  Brachystegia  tamarindoidcs  Welw.  var.  f  With  the 
following  note:  "Native  name  '  Mecomho,^  a  first-class  tree,  as  it  has  so  many  uses. 
Tree  50  feet  high;  long,  naked  trunk  9  feet  in  circumference.  Foliage  deep  green. 
Tlie  wood  is  considered  good  for  building.  Its  bark,  after  being  bf)i]ed  and  prepared, 
is  made  into  white  sheets  of  cloths  worn  by  the  natives  at  10'^  S.  They  also  make 
canoes,  boxes,  matches,  and  ropes  i'rom  it.  Its  honey  is  considered  very  superior  iu 
flavor  and  whiteness.  First  met  with  30  miles  from  the  sea;  afterwards  iu  the  interior 
it  was  frequent.  It  is  so  plentiful  at  0-  S.  lat.  that  our  temporary  huts  were  roofed 
with  its  bark,  and  my  plants  were  protected  by  planks  of  its  bark,  which  answered 
admirably,  being  light  and  stitl'."'  During  Livingston's  Zambesi  expedition,  in  1860, 
Sir  John  Kirk  collected  s])eeiuicns  of  Ilrachjistegia  appcndiciduia  Benth.,  a  tree  of  20 
to  40  feet  high  in  the  liighiands  of  the  Batoka  country,  where  it  is  known  by  the 
name  of  '' Molondo''  (Sdoka),  the  seeds  being  eaten  by  the  natives;  lie  also  collected 
the  same  species  near  Muata  Mauja,  14^  19'  S.  lat.,  and  states  that  the  fibrous  bark 
is  made  into  cloth  by  being  beaten  out.  According  to  Dr.  Meller,  tliistrec  is  known 
as  "  Clieiiga"  near  Zomba.  The  herbarium  contains  a  specimen  of  Jlrarhi/.itefjia  longu 
folia  Benth.,  collected  by  Mr.  J.  Buchanan  in  the  Shire  highlands,  and  bears  the 
following  label:  " XJomho.  Bark-cloth  tree,  wood  very  soft."  Another  herbarium 
specimen  collected  by  Sir  John  Kirk  near  Kusuma,  on  the  river  Shire,  is  labeled 
Braihystegia,  sp.  nov.,  and  is  described  as  being  a  good-sized  tree  with  a  fibrous  bark, 
which,  is  used  lor  cloth. 


94  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

Brecco  (Tuscan).     See  Cliryso2>ogon,  (jryllu.s. 

Bricks,  Ancient  Clay.     Made  Avith  stems  of  Foa  (ibyssmica. 

Brazil-nut  Tree  (see  llerthoUctia). 

Broad-leaved  flax  lily  (Tasm.).     JJiancUa  latifoUa. 

Brome  (Fr-).     Abroma  aiujuxta. 

Bronielia  spp. 

A  geuiKs  of  plauts  having  very  hliort  stems  and  densely  packeil,  rigid,  lauco-shaped 
leaves,  the  margins  of  which  are  armed  with  sharp  spines.  They  are  natives  of 
tropical  Americn,  though  they  have  been  distributed  to  the  East  Indies,  Africa,  and 
other  countries,  several  species  being  cultivated  as  greenhouse  jdants. 

"While  many  species  are  known  to  produce  fiber,  three  or  four  are  regarded  valuable 
as  liber  i)lants,  among  them  l'>.pin(iniu  being  the  best  known,  while  all  are  interesting. 
'^B.  fastnosa,  commonly  cultivated  in  greenhouses  in  England,  yields  liber  in  New 
Granada"  {Dr.  Morris),  and  Spon  states  that  Jl.  saijenaria,^  known  in  Brazil  as  the 
Ciirratow,  is  worthj'  of  cultivation  for  its  liber.  In  portions  of  Mexico  a  liromelia, 
cultivated  as  a  textile  plant,  yields  a  fiber  which  is  described  as  very  fine,  from  6  to 
!S  feet  in  length,  and  from  its  fiueness  and  toughness  connuouly  used  in  belt-making 
works.  It  also  finds  application  in  the  manufacture  of  many  articles,  such  as  bag- 
ging for  baling  cottou,  wagon  sheets,  carpets,  etc.,  besides  forming  a  valuable  material 
for  making  cordage,  nets,  hammocks,  and  similar  articles  of  common  use.  Beautiful 
examples  of  JiromcUa  fiber  were  brought  back  from  Santo  Domingo  in  1871  by  Dr.  C.  C. 
Parry,  and  at  the  W.  C.  E.  many  unnamed  fibers  of  great  length  and  fineness  were 
shown  which  doubtless  Avero  derived  from  species  of  this  genus.  There  is  great  con- 
fusion regarding  the  species  of  liromelia  yielding  fiber,  which  can  only  be  clcare<l 
up  by  studying  the  i)lauts  where  they  grow  and  extracting  the  tibcr  from  the  dili'er- 
eut  si)ecies. 

Bromelia  argentina.     CaraguatA. 

Eudogen.     Jlromeliacca'.    Aloe-like  leaf  cluster. 

Allied  to  the  wild  pineapple,  Bromelia  2}iiiijHin.  Abcmnds  in  Paraguay  and  in 
northwestern  Argentina.  "Very  abundant  in  the  Gran  Cliaco  and  ^lissiones  terri- 
tories, Corrii-ntes,  and  Santa  Fo.  Two  forms  are  recognized,  Carayuuta  ibira  and  the 
Caraifitatd  de  arjua."     {XieiJerhiti.) 

Stiuctliial  Fiueu. — Soft  and  silky,  obtained  in  lengths  of  4  to  6  feet,  medium 
strength,  resembles  pineaiiple  fiber.  The  production  is  limited  to  native  uses,  such 
as  for  rude  cordage,  sacks,  etc.  There  is  no  doubt  that  with  proper  machinery  the 
preparation  of  this  fiber  might  become  a  commercial  industry  in  the  countries  where 
grown.  1  have  met  with  it  in  South  American  exhibits  at  international  expositions, 
and  the  samples  secured  were  remarkably  line,  particularly  those  from  Argentina, 
where  two  species  of  Bromelia  are  thus  cmi)loyed.  See  also  Bromelia  svrr<(,  or  the 
chaguar. 

In  the  year  1S70  Messrs.  Branlio  Artecona  and  Louis  L.  Lcuguas  made  experiments 
with  machinery  that  they  established  in  the  department  of  Arroyos  y  Esterios,  Para- 
guayan Republic,  having  obtained  from  the  Government  a  concession  for  the  working 
of  this  product  freely  for  the  space  of  fifteen  years  in  all  fiscal  lands,  and  to  export 
the  same  when  manufactured  free  of  duty.  This  industry  did  not  give  satisfactory 
results,  owing  to  the  inexperience  of  those  in  charge  and  to  the  imi)erfection  of  the 
nuichinery.  After  several  fruitless  atteuipts  they  retired  and  their  concession  lapsed. 
In  1889-90  lS\v.  Artecona  again  organized  the  same  industry  with  modern  machinery, 
and  took  a  contract  from  the  company  'Tejidora,'  of  Buenos  Ayres,  for  all  he  could 
remit.     He  remitted  altogether  400  tons,  and  the  result  of  the  sale  might  have  been 

'  i'.  iUijenaria  is  now  referred  to  Anana.'i  bractcatut. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  95 

remunerative  if  no  iiad  not  coiumittod  the  ianlt  of  employing;  inexpert  luinds;  he 
spent  his  capital  in  useless  experiments,  and  again  suspeudeil  operations.  ( Kew 
Bull.,  September,  1892). 

Bromelia  karatas  (see  K((r<(tas  plumieri). 

Bromelia  pingiiin.     The  Wild  Pineapple.     riN(JUiN. 

Abounds  in  the  West  Indies  and  Central  America,  British  (Jniaiia,  and  Venezuela. 
Common  in  Yucatan;  known  as  Cliom.  The  species  is  conunon  on  the  rocky  hills  of 
the  West  Indies,  and  particularly  in  Jamaica,  where  the  plants  are  used  for  hedjjes 
and  fences.  It  is  abundant  in  Trinidad,  where  it  grows  on  the  poorer  soils,  the  leaves 
often  reaching  a  length  of  5  or  G  feet. 

In  the  literature  of  the  fiber-producing  species  of  Bromelia  in  tropical  America  the 
greatest  confusion  exists,  and  particularly  in  relation  to  the  liber  of  this  species  and 
B.  sijlvestris.  1  have  myself  been  led  into  error  regading  B.  sylcestris,  basing  my 
published  statements  on  the  literature  of  the  subject  of  thirty  or  forty  years  ago, 
including  the  communications  which  appear  in  the  earlier  publications  of  the 
Department  of  Agriculture,  and  upon  the  records  accompanying  the  specimens  them- 
selves received  through  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  and  from  early  correspondents 
of  the  Department,  together  with  documents  and  specimens  received  at  a  com2)ara- 
tively  recent  jieriod.  Bec(nuing  convinced  of  the  confusion  regarding  B.  i^i/lrestris,  a 
communication  on  the  subject  was  addressed  to  Dr.  Morrisi,  of  Kew,  who  says  in 
reply : 

"1  am  afraid  the  investigation  of  the  tiber-yielding  members  of  the  Bromvliacea-  is  a 
very  difficult  question.  We  know  really  very  little  of  the  si)ecies  yielding  libers  in 
tropical  America  Iteyond  two  or  three  of  the  most  common  of  them.  B.  sylcestris 
has  been  confounded  by  many  writers  as  a  form  of  the  common  pineapple.  Hence, 
liber  labeled  B.  sylrestris  may  after  all  be  nothing  but  pineapple  fiber.  The  true  B. 
si/lrestris  Willd,  figured  in  the  Bot.  Mag.,  t.  2392,  as  the  'narrow-leafed  wild  iiine- 
apple,'  probably  does  yield  fiber,  but  it  is  impossible  to  say  without  careful  study 
of  the  jilant  itself  whether  it  is  the  form  of  the  common  pineapple  or  true  B.  si/lves- 
tris.  The  wild  pineapple  fiber  of  British  Honduras,  which  is  mentioned  in  my  book 
as  Bromelia  pita  is  probably  Karatas  plumieri  yielding  silk  grass.  The  former  must  be 
dropped.     It  has  no  meaning  except  as  a  synonym  of  the  latter." 

B.  ptnguin  is  everywhere  common  in  the  West  Indies,  yet  only  one  or  two  speci- 
mens iVom  the  West  Indies  in  the  Department  collection  are  labeled  pin</uin,  while 
many  are  named  sylrestris.  A  recent  specimen  from  Trinidad,  marked  B.  sylrestris, 
and  which  also  bears  the  name  pinquine,  is  probably  from  this  species.  See  further 
remarks  under  B.  sylrestris. 

Botanical  dkscuiptiox. — B.  pinquin  Linn.,  Sp.  Plant.,  408  (Dill.  Elth.,  t.  240,  fig. 
311;  Trew  Ehret.,  t.  51);  Red.  Lil.,  t.  396.  Agallostarhy-s  pinyitin  Beer.  Karatas 
peuguinMillei:  Ananas pinyuin  Gaert.  Karatas  phimiei'i  Devan,  non  Morren — Acaules- 
ceut.  Leaves  100  or  more  iti  a  rosette,  ensiform,  stil'Hy  erect  in  the  lower  half, 
reaching  a  length  of  5  to  6  feet,  1^  to  2  inches  broad  at  the  middle,  tapering  gradu- 
ally to  the  point,  green  and  glabrous  on  the  face,  thinly  white-lei»idote  on  the  back, 
armed  with  very  large-toothed  pungent  brown  prickles.  Peduncle  stout,  stifliy 
erect,  about  a  foot  long,  its  leaves  ofteji  bright  red.  Panicle  dense,  stittly  erect,  1  to 
2  feet  long ;  axis  and  branches  densely  mealy ;  branch-bracts  oblong,  pale,  lower  with 
a  rigid  spine-edged  cusi);  lower  branches  3  to  4  inches  long,  bearing  (5  to  8  sessile 
duwcrs;  fiower-bracts,  minute,  ovate.  Ovary  cylindrical,  very  pubescent,  about  an 
inch  long;  sepals  nearly  as  long,  with  a  densely  matted  tip.  Petals  reddish,  densely 
matted  at  the  tip  with  white  tomeutum,  about  \\  inches  longer  than  the  calyx. 
Berry  ovoid,  yellowish  brown,  1  inch  diameter.     {Dr.  Baker.) 

Structural  Fibf.r. — In  the  Kew  Bulletin  for  April,  1887,  page  8,  the  fiber  of  this 
species  is  thus  referred  to:  The  fiber  of  the  .Jamaica  pinquin  (Uroniclia pinyuin  L.) 
would  appear  not  to  be  of  high  value.     The  plant  covers  hundreds  of  acres  in  the 


96  USEFUL  FIBER  PLANTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 

plains  and  lowlands  of  Jamaica,  and  an  eft'ort  was  made  some  time  ago  to  prepare  the 
fiber  for  commercial  purposes.  The  report  of  the  brokers  npon  a  sample  of  90  pounds 
was  as  follows:  "A  long,  towzeled,  weak  fiber,  of  bad  color,  coarse,  no  strength,  and 
only  fit  for  breaking  up.  Similar  to  St.  Helena  hemp  tow,  but  not  so  good.  We 
should  think  £12  to  £10  per  ton  the  utmost  value."  Several  samples  of  this  pinguin 
fiber,  from  Jamaica  and  elsewhere,  cleaned  both  by  hand  and  by  machine,  are  to  he 
seen  in  the  Kew  Mus.,  Xo.  2. 

*  Sjyecimens  of  the  fiber  were  secured  from  the  exhibit  of  British  Guiana,  W.  C.  E., 
1893.  "  Usctl  for  commercial  purposes  only  to  a  slight  extent.  Probably  used  for 
cordage  by  natives  employed  in  making  cables  and  large  ropes  for  use  on  the  rivers." 
{Quelch.)  The  Kew  Bulletin  for  September,  1892,  states  that  the  fiber  of  the  pinguin 
was  carefully  investigated  by  the  hotauical  department  in  Jamaica  in  1884.  The 
plant  covers  hundreds  of  acres  in  the  island,  and  it  would  readily  support  a  large 
industry.  Great  difiSculty  was,  however,  experienced  in  extracting  the  fiber  by 
machinery,  without  maceration,  and  the  results  were  by  no  means  satisfactory. 
Several  samples  were  forwarded  to  Louilon  and  to  New  York  for  the  oi>inion  of  brok- 
ers, and  the  London  reports  were  as  follows :  "  Poor,  dull  fiber,  gummy,  fair  strength, 
value  about  £20.  Almost  unsalable  in  the  form  sent,  not  well  dressed,  not  good 
color,  and  in  some  parts  rather  tender.  H"  this  was  better  dressed  it  might  have  a 
sale,  but  in  the  ])resent  form,  when  so  gummy,  it  is  difficult  to  form  an  estimate 
ofit." 

Spon  refers  to  the  fiber  "yielded  by  the  leaves  of  Jl.  pigna  {pinguin),  a  native  of 
the  Philippine  Islands,  being  woven  into  a  most  delicate  textile  fabric,  known  as 
pigna  cloth,  from  which  the  celebrated  manila  handkerchiefs  are  nuide;"  and  M. 
Perroutel  is  said  to  have  considered  the  pineapple  cloth  of  the  Philippines  the  prodnct 
of  a  distinct  species,  which  he  called  />'.  pigna,  but  this  has  been  determined  to  be 
the  cultivated i^ineapple.  Ananas  aatira,  in  a  semiwild  state.  Specimens  of  "(/wamara" 
fiber  were  secured  from  the  Mexican  exhibit,  AV.  C.  E.,  1893.  Dr.  Ernst  refers  gita- 
mara  to  B.  pinguin,  though  the  name  has  also  been  given  to  Earatas  plumieri. 

Bromelia  serra.     Chaguar. 

This  sjjccies  abounds  in  the  northwestern  portions  of  Argentina.  The  fiber  is 
chiefly  used  by  the  Indians,  who  manufacture  it  into  cords,  hammocks,  sacks,  etc., 
known  as  chaguar.  In  the  KewMns.  is  shown  a  tuirass  of  ciiagnar  fiber  nuule  by  the 
Mataeo  Indians  of  Argentina.  '•\\'henworn  by  these  people  it  is  ]»added  before 
and  behind  with  cotton  from  the  fruit  of  the  Yachan,  Choiixia  inxignis.  By  rolling 
themselves  in  water,  the  fiber  swells  and  the  whole  becomes  arrow  proof."  (Off. 
Guide  Kew  Mus.) 

Bromelia  sylvestris. 

A  foi  lu  of  "wild  pineapple  "  fouiul  in  the  West  Indies  and  Central  America.  While 
many  examples  of  its  fiber  have  been  sent  to  the  Department  from  time  to  time,  spe- 
cifically named  B.  sijlrestna,  I  have  serious  doubts  as  to  the  correctness  of  the  labeling 
in  a  majority  of  instances,  for  they  not  only  difier  widely  when  compared,  but  the 
statements  concerning  them  give  evidence  of  error  and  confusion. 

Botanical  description. — B.  syhesti-is  Willd. ;  Sims  in  Bot.  Mag.,  t.  2392.  Agnllos- 
fachys  sglvestris  Beer. — Acaulescent.  Leaves  ensiform,  rigid,  3  to  4  feet  long,  1  i  inches 
broad  low  down,  narrowed  gradually  to  the  point,  bright  green  on  the  face,  thinly 
all)o-lepidote  on  the  back,  armed  with  strong  hooked  prickles.  Peduncle  a  foot  or 
more  long,  its  leaves  reflexing,  the  upper  bright  red.  Inflorescence  a  narrow  panicle 
with  short  spaced-out  corymbose  branches,  all  subtended  by  bright-red  bracts,  the 
lower  with  rigid  spine-edged  tips.  Ovary  pubescent,  cylindrical-trigonous,  about 
an  inch  long;  sepals  nearly  as  long  as  the  ovary.  Petals  reddish,  not  matted  at  the 
tip,  protruding  one-fourth  of  an  inch  from  the  calyx.     (Dr.  Baker.) 

Stul'ctiral  riBf.K. — Occurs  in  various  forms,  the  age  of  the  jdant  making  a  difter- 
©nce  iu  the  appearance  and  (quality  of  the  fiber.    Dr.  Morris  states  that  "there  are 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  97 

several  samples  of  a  wild  pineapple  (Bromelia  sijl rcstr is  Willd.)  from  tlie  West  Indies 
and  Central  America  iit  Kew,  but  tiiere  is  no  record  of  their  commercial  value."'  A 
sample  sent  to  Kew  from  Trinidad  in  1887,  supposed  to  be  from  this  species,  was 
reported  upon  as  follows:  "Not  in  commercial  use,  but  destined,  we  think,  to  a  suc- 
cessful future;  line,  soft,  supple  liber,  strong  and  <;ood  color,  ample  length,  (worth) 
saj-  £30  per  ton  and  upwards." 

A  beautiful  sample  of  fiber  secured  by  me  from  the  Mexican  exhibit  at  the  Paris 
Exposition  of  1889,  and  labeled  B.  sylrei^tris,  was  very  long,  creamy  white,  line,  soft, 
and  silky.  A  memorandum  secured  with  the  sample  reads  as  follows :  "  Grows  wild 
in  a  zone  extending  from  Tustepec  in  the  State  of  Oaxaca  to  Acayucan  in  Vera  Cruz. 
Employed  in  making  hunting  bags  or  game  pouches  and  fine  woven  textures.  For- 
merly it  was  used  for  the  line  sewing  of  shoes."  This  sample  is  finer,  softer,  and  of 
a  better  color  than  any  other  samples  labeled  B.  sylcestris  in  the  Department  collec- 
tion. Eegarding  the  correctness  of  the  identification,  however,  nothing  authorita- 
tive can  be  stated. 

The  name  "silk  grass,"  and  "silk  grass  of  Honduras"  has  been  given  to  this  species 
(in  the  books),  though  "  silk  grass  "  has  also  been  given  to  other  species,  and  even  to  the 
fiber  of  Agaves.  Dr.  Morris  writes  mo  that  a  wild  form  of  the  common  pineapple, 
Jnaitas  >iaih-(i,  growing  at  Kew,  yields  a  fiber  called  "silk-grass  fiber"  by  the  Eng- 
lish. This  plant  is  the  "Crowia"  of  British  Guiana  (see  also  Krowa  in  this  catalogue). 
He  further  states  that  the  name  silk  grass  is  applied  indiscriminately  to  the  fiber  of 
the  common  pineapple,  of  a  Bromelia,  a  Karatas,  and  also  of  Fiircraa  cabensis.  The 
name  silk  grass  therefore  serves  no  i)urpose  of  identification  in  connection  with  the 
fiber  of  7>.  sylvestris. 

EcoNOJiic  LITERATURE.— In  the  monthly  report  of  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  for  1869,  pages  232-233,  there  is  a  communication  from  Hon.  J.  McLeod 
Murphy,  which,  when  sent  to  the  Department,  was  "accompanied  with  three  skeins 
of  the  istle  fiber,  Bromelia  sylrcstris,"  etc.,  and  also  with  a  package  of  the  hackled 
fiber  and  small  samples  of  fishing-tackle.  In  this  communication  the  leaf  is  described 
as  "being  shaped  like  a  sword,  its  edges  armed  with  prickles  similar,  in  fact,  to  the 
weapon  formed  from  itzli,  or  obsidian,  used  by  the  Aztecs;  hence  the  term."  It  was 
said  to  grow  almost  exclusively  on  the  southern  shore  of  the  Mexican  Gulf,  between 
Alvarado  and  Tabasco,  extending  as  far  inland  as  the  northern  slopes  of  the  dividing 
ridge  which  separates  the  Atlantic  IVom  the  Pacific.  The  leaves  were  5  to  6  feet  in 
length.  In  the  monthly  report  of  the  Department  for  August  and  September,  1870, 
page  354,  there  is  another  communication  from  the  same  source  which  was  sent  to  tlie 
Department  with  a  package  of  dried  leaves  "sun  dried  by  Squier,"  and  a  hank  of 
the  fiber.  These  specimens  are  still  in  the  collection  of  the  Department;  the  leaves 
are  without  s^Hnes,  though  these  niaj'  have  been  cut  off.  . 

In  Squier's  Tropical  Fibers  (New  York,  1861)  there  is  an  account  of  the  "Bromelia 
sijlrestris,  or  wild  pineapple,  the  istle  of  Mexico,  but  known  as  pita  aud pinueUa  in 
Central  America  and  Panama,  and  in  the  West  Indies  as  Bromelia  jnnguin  or  jjciujniit, 
(which)  can  hardly  bo  said  to  rank  second  to  the  Jienequois  in  economic,  importance." 
This  is  reproduced  in  the  report  of  the  Flax  and  Hemp  Commission  of  1863.  Siiuier 
also  quotes  Major  Barnard,  U.  S.  A.,  in  a  report  on  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec,  who, 
speaking  of  the  "  isiZe,"  says:  "Among  the  spontaneous  products  of  the  Isthmus  is 
the  Bromelia  pita  or  ixtle,  which  difiers  in  some  regard  from  the  Acjave  amrricana  of 
Europe,"etc.  Further  he  quotes  from  a  paperreadby  Chief  Justice  Temple,  of  Belize, 
or  British  Honduras,  in  the  year  1857,  which  appeared  in  the  journal  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  Arts,  Vol.  V,  p.  125.     An  extract  is  hero  reproduced  : 

"Among  other  objects  of  interest  he  exhibited  a  quantity  of  the  fiber  of  the  ])lant 
under  notice  as  well  as  of  the  Jyavc  nisalana."  Of  the  former,  or  llromelia  sylreslris, 
he  said :  "The  plant  called  Bromelia  pita,  islle  by  the  Mexicans,  and  silk  grass  by  the 
Creoles  of  British  Honduras,  grows  spontaneously  in  the  greatest  abundance.  The 
leaves  are  of  a  soft,  dark  green,  from  5  to  15  feet  long  and  from  14  to  4  inches  wide. 
12247— No.  9 7 


98  USEFUL  FIBER  PLANTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 

Aloug  the  edge  of  the  leaf,  about  6  inches  apart,  are  Bhort,  sharp,  curved  thorns. 
When  the  plant  is  cultivated  these  gradually  disappear." 

Capt.  A.  L.  Varuey,  in  a  paper  on  bristle  libers  (Report  of  the  (^hicf  of  ( )rdnance, 
1883,  p.  161),  refers  to  the  statements  of  Squier  and  others,  and,  commenting  on  the 
confusion  that  exists  as  to  the  names  of  the  iibers  of  the  Agaves  and  Hromelias,  says : 
"Most  -writers,  however,  refer  to  the  '  intle,'  'ixtle,'  or  '  itzlc'  as  the  fiber  of  BromelUi 
sylrestris,"'  which  he  regards  as  the  source  of  Tarapico.  He  then  gives  a  plate  illus- 
tracion  of  " BromcUa  sylvestris  ov  penqHin  (sic.),  the  wild  Pineapple." 

The  writer  also  fell  into  error  in  his  "Report  on  vegetable  fibers,"  in  Annual 
Report  of  the  De])artment  of  Agriculture  for  1879,  the  statements  being  reproduced 
in  No.  6,  New  Commercial  Plants  and  Drugs,  by  Thos.  Christy  (London,  1882).  And 
the  confusion  is  still  further  added  to  iu  the  writer's  treatment  of  7>.  sylrestris  in  No. 
5,  Filter  Investigations  scries,  A  Report  on  the  Leaf  Fibers  of  the  United  States  (1893). 
In  Pernardin's  Catalogue  the  species  is  treated  thus:  '■^Iztlc,  Mexique;  inta, pinuella, 
Am.  cent.;  P<'Wf/H(«,  lud.  oc. ;  Silk  grass,  Honduras  Brittauiquo.  Jiromelia  KaraUis 
en  parait  une  lari^tr."  In  the  Manual  Hoepli  B.  sylrestris  is  stated  to  be  ibund  in  Brazil 
and  Guiana.  "The  fiber  is  white,  lustrous,  and  fine,  from  which  is  manufactured 
exclusively  articles  de  luxe."     {Sarorgnan.) 

See  Istle  nnd  Agare  heteracanthd,  in  this  catalogue,  and  also  refer  to  Bromd'ut  jtin- 
guin,  aV)ove,  and  to  the  note  by  Dr.  Morris  on  Bromelia  pita,  under  B.  pingitin;  see 
Karatas  plnmieri. 

Broom  (see  Cytisus  scoparius). 

Broom  corn  (see  Andropoyon  sorghum  rnUjaris). 

Broom  hemp  (see  Crotalaria). 

Broom  palm  (see  Attalea  and  Thrinax). 

Broom  root  (Mex.).     See  Epicampes. 

Broom,  Spanish  (see  Spartinm). 

Broomstick  grass  (see  Aristida  setacea). 

Broussonetia  papyrifera.    Paper  Mulberry. 

Exogen.     Moracea.     A  small  tree. 

Native  names. — Kodzn  and  Ao^o  (Jap.);  Iwa-lo-cliu  (China);  kendang  (Java); 
ma-lo  (Fiji  Is.).  The  fabric  made  from  its  bark,  by  beating,  is  known  on  the 
Pacific  Islands  as  tappa,  tapa,  and  lapa. 

Native  of  China,  Japan,  Siam,  Polynesian  Islands,  and  Burma.  Introduced  into 
other  countries.     (See  fig.  36.) 

FiBKK. — The  fibrous  substance  of  the  bark  puljts  readily,  and  is  therefore  esteemed 
in  Japan  as  paper  stock.  In  Burma  iti  s  used  iov  pupivr  macliL  ''  The  fiber  is  strong 
and  fine,  and  has  the  great  merit  of  requiring  little  bleach"  (Watt).  Beautiful 
specimens  of  the  fiber  were  received  from  the  .Japanese  <ourt,  W.  C.  E.,  1893,  and 
are  now  in  the  collection  of  this  Department. 

It  is  said  that  the  finest  and  whitest  cloth  and  mantles  worn  by  Sandwich  Island- 
ers and  "  the  principal  people  of  Otaheite,"  are  made  from  the  bast  of  this  tree.  It 
dyes  readily,  particularly  iu  red,  and  takes  a  good  color.  Tapa  cloth  is  also  printed, 
a  large  sheet  from  the  Fiji  Islands,  iu  possession  of  the  Department,  being  stamped 
or  rudely  printed  in  black,  in  large  checks  or  squai'es,  resembling  the  patchwork 
of  a  i[uilt.  The  manner  in  which  the  fiber  is  beaten  out  by  the  native  women  of 
Otaheite  is  very  curious.  The  cleansed  fibers  are  spread  out  on  plantain  leaves  to 
the  length  of  about  11  or  12  yards;  these  are  placed  on  a  regular  or  even  surface  of 
about  a  foot  iu  breadth.  Two  or  three  layers  are  tlius  placed  one  upon  the  other, 
much  attention  being  paid  to  making  the  cloth  of  uniform  thickness;  if  thinner  in 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE. 


99 


ouo  place  tliau  imothcr  ii  thicker  piece  is  laid  over  this  place,  wlieu  the  uext  jayer  is 
laid  down.  The  cloth  is  left  to  dry  during  the  night,  and  a  part  of  the  moisture 
beiug  evaporated,  the  several  layers  are  found  to  adhere  together  so  that  the  -whole 
mass  may  he  lifted  from  the  ground  in  one  piece.  It  is  then  laid  on  a  long  smooth 
plank  of  wood  i^repared  for  the  purpose,  aud  beaten  witha\vooden  instrument  about 
a  foot  long  aud  3  iuches  square.  Each  of  the  four  sides  has  longitudinal  grooves  of 
different  degrees  of  fineness,  the  depth  aud  width  of  those  on  one  side  being  suffici- 
ent to  receive  a  small  pack  thread,  tlie  other  sides  being  liner  in  a  regular  gradation, 
so  that  the  grooves  of  the  last  would  scarcely  admit  anything  coarser  than  sewing 
silk.  A  long  handle  is  attached,  aud  the  cloth  is  fust  beaten  with  its  coarser  side, 
and  spreads  very  fast  nndor  the  strokes;  it  is  then  beaten  with  the  other  sides  suc- 
cessively, and  is  then  considered  lit  for  nse.  Sometimes,  however,  it  is  made  still 
thinner  by  beating,  after  it  has  been  several  times  doubled,  with  the  finest  side  of 


Fio.  36. — Leaf  of  Jlromsimetia  pa-pyrifcra. 


the  mallet,  aud  it  can  thus  bo  attenuated  until  it  becomes  as  tine  as  muslin.  Should 
the  cloth  break  uuder  this  process,  it  is  easily  repaired  by  laying  on  a  piece  of  bark, 
which  is  made  to  adhere  by  moans  of  a  glutinous  substance  made  from  the  arrow- 
root, and  this  is  done  with  such  nicety  that  the  break  can  hardly  be  detected.  The 
King  of  the  Friendly  Islands  had  a  piece  made  which  was  120  feet  wide  aud  2  miles 
long,  a  part  of  which  is  now  in  the  Kew  Mus. 

W.  D.  Alexander  makes  statements  regarding  the  manufacture  and  uses  of  the 
Kapa  cloth  of  the  Hawaiian  Islanders  as  follows:  ''This  was  made  of  the  bark  of 
the  paper  mulberry  or  waukc  (Bronssouelia  papyrifera)  and  of  the  mamale  {Piptiirm 
(tlhidus),  which  were  cultivated  with  much  care.  Its  manufacture  was  left  entirely 
to  the  women,  who  peeled  off  strips  of  the  bark  and  scraped  off  the  outer  coat  with 
shells.  After  being  soaked  a  while  in  water  each  strip  was  laiil  upon  a  smooth  log 
and  beaten  with  a  square-grooved  mallet  of  hard  wood  until  it  resembled  thick, 


100  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE  WORLD. 

flexible  paper.  The  strips  were  united  by  overlaying-  tlic  edges  and  beating  them 
together.  There  were  several  qualities  of  kapa,  some  so  lino  as  to  resemble  muslin, 
and  other  kinds  very  thick  and  tough,  which  appeared  like  wash  leather.  It  was 
bleached  white  or  stained  witli  vegetable  or  mineral  dyes,  impressed  with  bamboo 
stamps  in  a  great  variety  of  patterns  and  colors,  ;ind  ghized  with  a  kind  of  gum  or 
resin.  Nothing  like  a  loom  was  known  in  Polynesia.  Th<!  dress  of  the  women  con- 
sisted of  the  2)a-u,  a  wrapi>er  composed  of  five  tliicknesses  of  kapa,  about  4  yards 
long  and  3  or  feet  wide,  passed  several  times  around  the  waist  and  extending  below 
the  knee,  while  that  of  the  men  was  the  malo  or  girdle,  wliich  was  about  a  loot  wide 
and  3  or  4  yards  long.  The  kilui  or  mantle,  about  6  feet  square,  was  occasionally 
worn  by  both  sexes.  It  was  worn  by  tiie  men  by  tying  two  corners  of  the  same  side 
together  so  that  the  knot  rested  on  one  shoulder,  and  by  the  women  as  a  long  shawl. 
In  general,  this  paper  cloth  would  not  bear  washing  and  lasted  only  a  few  weeks. 
The  kajya  moe  or  sleeping  Anjja  was  made  of  five  layers  of  common  7irtj>rt,  3  or  4  yards 
square.     The  outside  piece  (kilohana)  was  stained  or  painted  with  vegetable  dyes,'' 

In  Jai)an  a  kind  of  cloth  is  made  from  paper  derived  from  this  tree.  It  is  cut  into 
thin  strips,  which  are  twisted  togetlier  and  spooled,  to  be  used  in  the  woof  of  the 
fabric,  while  the  warp  is  comijosed  of  silk  or  hemp.  About  250  pieces  only  are 
manufactured  at  the  principal  nianufacturiug  place.  The  i)apcr  mulberry  grows 
everywhere  in  .Japan,  and  is  a  valuable  tree  as  furnishing  the  bast  from  which  a 
large  portion  of  the  .Japanese  paper  is  made.  The  plants  arc  rej)roduccd  in  quantity 
by  subdividing  the  roots,  and  in  two  or  three  years  are  ready  to  be  cut.  Tliis  work 
is  done  in  November,  and  the  branches  (7  to  10  feet  long)  are  made  up  into  bundles 
3  or  4  feet  in  length,  and  steamed,  so  that  the  bark  is  loosened  and  can  be  more  readily 
stripped  off.  This  is  washed,  dried,  and  then  again  soaked  in  water  and  scraped 
with  a  knife  to  remove  the  outer  skin,  which  is  used  for  inferior  kinds  of  paper. 
The  bast  when  cleaned  is  washed,  repeatedly  kneaded  in  clean  water,  and  rinsed. 
It  is  then  bleached  in  the  sun  until  snfliciently  white,  after  which  it  is  boiled  in  a 
lye,  chiefly  of  buckwheat  ashes,  to  remove  all  gummy  matters.  The  fibers  are  now 
readily  separated,  and  are  transformed  into  pulp  by  beating  with  wooden  mallets. 
The  pulj)  is  mixed  in  vats  with  the  necessary  ([uantity  of  water,  to  which  is  added 
a  milky  substance  prepared  from  rice  Hour  and  the  gummy  infusion  of  th<'  bark  of 
Hydrangea  panicidatu,  or  the  root  of  Hihincus  maiiihot.  The  couches  on  which  the 
paper  sheets  are  produced  are  made  of  bamboo,  split  into  very  thin  sticks,  and 
united  in  paralleled  lines  by  silk  or  hemp  tlireads,  so  as  to  form  a  kind  of  mat.  This 
is  laid  upon  a  wooden  frame  and  the  apparatus  dipped  into  the  vat,  raised,  and 
shaken  so  as  to  spread  the  pulp  evenly,  after  which  the  cover  is  lirst  removed,  then 
the  bamboo  couch  with  the  sheet  of  paper,  and  in  returning  the  ojjerative  lays  the 
sheet  upon  the  others.  When  a  number  of  .sheets  have  thus  l)eeu  prepared  they  are 
jiressed  to  exclude  the  water,  and  afterwards  spread  out  Avith  a  brush  upon  boards 
and  allowed  to  dry.  The  sheets  are  only  about  2  feet  iu  length,  but  sometimes  sheets 
10  feet  long  are  produced.  (From  a  report  by  the  Jap;mese  commissioners  to  the 
Phil.  Int.  Exh.,  1876.) 

The  topographical  features  fit  for  the  plant  is  a  sloping  place  facing  southeast,  so 
as  to  receive  the  full  light  of  the  sun  and  protected  from  high  wind.  The  suitable 
soil  is  gravel  loam,  or  vegetable  mold  or  yellow  loam  with  some  gravel.  The  jirop- 
agation  is  done  either  by  planting  divisions  of  old  roots,  layerings,  cuttings,  or 
seeds;  but  the  most  common  method  is  the  first  mentioned.  This  is  performed  in 
March,  digging  off"  young  shoots  from  the  old  stubble,  which  is  well  manured,  once 
in  the  previous  winter  and  again  early  in  the  spring,  and  the  land  is  hand  hoed  at 
the  same  time.  The  young  shoots,  with  some  rootlets,  are  cut  to  the  length  of  about 
1  foot  and  planted  in  rows  of  about  2h  feet  wide,  at  an  interval  of  about  3  inches, 
leaving  the  top  about  2  inches  above  the  ground,  manured  with  some  li<|uid  manure, 
and  covered  with  straw  to  prevent  burning  by  the  sun.  And  when  the  buds  come  out 
at  the  beginning  of  June  the  covering  of  straw  is  taken  ortand  watering  is  repeated 
scA'eral  times  according  to  need.     Weak  branches,  which  come  out  in  abundance,  are 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  101 

takcu  ort",  leaviug  at  last  only  one  vigorous  shoot.  The  young  plants  are  carefully 
dug  out  after  the  leaves  have  fallen  and  heeled  in  temporarily  in  some  place  till 
the  time  for  transplanting.  No  particular  preparation  of  the  soil  is  necessary 
where  they  are  to  he  replanted  besides  digging  holes  to  receive  the  young  plants, 
which  are  usually  transplanted  at  any  time  from  the  end  of  November  to  the  begin- 
ning of  January,  or  beginning  of  February  to  the  end  of  March.  At  the  time  of 
transplanting,  tlie  holes  jireviouslj'^  dug  are  partly  filled  with  farmyard  manure  or 
with  some  oil  cake,  covered  slightly  with  earth,  over  which  the  seed  plants  are  sot 
one  by  one.  the  remaining  open  part  of  the  holes  is  filled  np  with  earth  liglitly 
trodden  in  around  the  plants.  Tlie  seed  plants  required  for  an  acre  vary  A'ery  much ; 
but  usually  range  between  1,.")00  and  4,500.  Manures  used  after  transplanting  are 
commonly  farmyard  manure,  grasses,  tree  leaves,  night  soil,  dried  fish,  etc.,  and 
they  arc  placed  around  the  plants  in  spring..  Weeding  should  be  done  many  times, 
especially,  in  the  first  year,  and  weak  shoots  pruned  from  time  to  time.  The  yield 
from  one  acre  varies  according  to  the  time  of  transplanting,  but  the  average  of  five 
years  is  estimated  at  300  to  600  kilograms  of  raw  bark.  As  the  plants  are  cut,  they 
arc  steamed  and  the  bark  is  strij^ped  off  before  cooling  and  dried  by  hanging  on 
bamboo  frames  under  the  roof.  The  dried  bark  is  now  steeped  in  water  and  when 
softened  rubbed  violently  in  order  to  remove  the  exterior  coarse  and  woody  part 
which  is  again  cleaned  off  by  means  of  a  small  knife,  then  well  dried,  and  is  now 
ready  for  market.     (Desc.  Cat.  Ag.  Prod.  Jap.,  W.  C.  E.,  1898.) 

Bro-wn  Hemp  (Ind.).     CrotaJaria  juncea. 

Buaze  (So.  Afr.).     See  Secnridaca  longepedtmculata. 

Bullrush  (or  Bulrush).     /Seirjms  locustris. 

Also  Typha  latifoliii,  the  cat-tail  Hag.     Lesser .  Typlui  angnstifolia;  of 

the  Nile,  Cypems  papijrHs. 

Bun  ochra  (Ind.),     See  Urena  lohata  and  Triumfetfa  rhomhoidea. 

Bun-pat  or  Bhunji-pat.   (Beng.)   Corchoriis  oUforius. 

Buphane  disticha. 

An  amiiryllid  found  in  south  Africa,  remarkable  in  producing  a  bulb  as  large  as  a 
man's  head,  supporting  100  or  more  flowers.  This  bulb  yields  a  fiber,  examples  of 
wliich  are  shown  in  the  Kew  Botanical  Museum. 

Burdock,  Common  (see  Arctium  lappa). 

Burity  (see  MaurHia). 

Burn-nose  Bark  (Jam.).     Daphnopsis  tinifoUa. 

Buscola,  or  Bruscola  Baskets,   of  Italy;  made  from  the  ^'■Giunco 
marlnoy     See  Junvns  aeutus  and  Lygeum  spartum. 

Biissu  (see  Manicaria  s-accifera). 
Butea  frondosa.     Butea  Gum. 

Exogen.     Leiiuminosn'      A  tree. 

Found  throughout  India  and  P>nrma.  Yields  the  gum  known  as  Bengal  Icino.  The 
flowers  furnish  the  tcsii  dye. 

Bast  Fiber. — "It  yields  a  tough  fiber  said  to  be  useful  for  paper  making  and  for 
cordage;  also  the  young  roots  yield  a  strong  fiber  known  as  clihoel.  Tliis  is  made 
into  rojjes  in  Chutia  Nagpur,  Central  Provinces^  Oudh,  Rajputana,  and  Bombay  hill 
tracts,  etc.;  it  is  also  used  in  some  i)art8  of  India  for  making  native  sandals.  The 
roots  and  young  branches  of  7>.  siiperha,  another  Indian  species  (also  mentioned  by 


102         USEFUL  FIBER  PLANTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 

Savorgnari;,  affords  a  strong  and  useful  fiber  prepared  iu  Chutia  Xagpur,  tlie  Central 
Provinces,  and  Rajputana."'     (  Watt.) 

Cabbage  palm,  of  tlie  West  Indies,  Orendoxa  oleracea;  of  Australia, 
Lit'istona  (distralis. 

Cabbage  palmetto  (Fla).     Sabal  palmetto. 

Cabo  negro.     Caryota  vnnsta,  or  Arenf/<(  saccharifera. 

Cabouja,  or  Cabiija  (W.  Ind.).     See  Furcrcva. 

Cabulla  (Cent.   Am.).     Agave  rigida  sisalana ;    of  Costa  Eica,   Fur- 
cnea  tiiberosa. 

Cabuya  (Cent.  Am.).     Agave  rigida. 
Cactus.     See  Opuntia. 

The  sisal  hemp  plant  has  sometimes  been  called  cactus  erroneously.     See  Agave. 

Cadhi  (Arab.).     See  Pandanus. 
Cadillo  (Venez.).     Urena  lohat'a. 
Cadillo  negro.     Triumfetta. 
Csesar  weed  (Fla.).     Urena  lobata. 
Caffir  cotton  (Afr.).     See  Ipomaa  digitata. 
Cajun  (Cent.  Am.).     Fvrerwa  eubensis. 
Caladium  giganteum. 

A  genus  of  the  Aracea'.  This  species,  now  Colocasia  indica,  is  found  in  Ouiana. 
Savorgnau  mentions  that  the  fiber  from  the  stems  is  adapted  for  paper  stock.  Dorca 
mentions  in  his  textile  list  a  Peruvian  species,  C.  pertusum,  known  as  Chimcn,  but 
does  not  state  how  it  is  used. 

Calamus  rotang.     The  Kattan  Cane. 

Endogen.     VaJma-.     A  scandent  palm. 
Known  in  Ceylon  as  tlie  ela-wcirel. 

Nearly  200  species  of  this  genus  inhabit  tropical  and  subtropical  Asia,  Africa,  and 
Australia.  (L  rotang  is  found  in  India,  Burma,  and  Ceylon,  and  yields  the  best  rattan 
canes  of  commerce.  Sjilit  into  strips,  it  is  woven  or  plaited  into  chairs  and  fur- 
niture, baskets,  etc.  ''  It  is  made  into  ropes,  or  is  stretched,  entire,  across  rivers  as 
the  main  supports  of  cane  suspension  bridges." 

Good  examples  of  these  may  be  seen  in  the  Khasia  and  northern  Cachar  hills.  On 
the  march  from  Silchar  to  Manipur,  for  example,  three  have  to  be  crossed,  namely, 
over  the  Muku,  the  Barak,  and  the  Irang  rivers.  Within  the  past  few  years,  owing 
to  heavy  traffic,  these  have  been  strengthened  by  one  or  two  wire  ropes,  but  cane 
bridges  are  by  no  means  unfrequent  in  the  mountainous  tracts  of  the  eastern  side  of 
India,  and  cane  ladders  are  not  uncommon  iu  the  south  on  the  Animalis.  Carefully 
selected  canes.  300  or  400  feet  long,  constitute  the  chains,  and  the  bridges  of  that 
length  are  often  thrown  across  rocky  valleys  50  feet  above  the  water.  This  height 
is  necessary  in  order  to  be  above  the  water  level  in  the  sudden  rising  of  the  rivers 
which  takes  place  during  the  rains. 

Ropes  are  regularly  made  in  China  by  splitting  the  rattan  and  twisting  the  long 
fibers  thus  prepared  into  cordage  of  any  desired  thickness.  In  the  Kew  Mus.  speci- 
mens of  cuft's,  and  an  undershirt,  are  shown  from  China,  made  of  the  split  stems  of 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  103 

this  or  allied  species.  C.  rotanfj  also  supplies  the  material  for  Malacca  canes.  "  Tliey 
are  imported  in  large  quantities  from  Siak,  and  are  valued  according  to  the  length  of 
their  iuternodes,  the  longest  being  used  for  walking  sticks  and  the  shorter  ones  for 
the  handles  of  chimney-sweepers'  brushes,  etc."     (Otf.  Guide  Kcw  Mus.) 

The  European  uses  of  canes  are  eveu  more  varied  than  tlie  Asiatic.  They  are 
valued  on  account  of  their  lightness,  llexibility,  and  strength.  They  are  extensively 
used  as  walking  sticks,  umbrella  handles,  and  even  as  a  substitute  for  whalebone 
for  uuibrella  and  parasol  ribs,  each  set  of  such  ribs  costing  only  from  Id.  to  2id, 
instead  <tf  2s.  6(1.  to  3s.  for  whalebone.  Cane  is  also  extensively  employed  in  saddlery 
and  harness,  and  a  wickerwork  of  rattan  is  now  used  in  the  construction  of  the 
German  military  helmet,  which  is  said  to  make  it  sword  proof.  But  the  chief  pur- 
pose to  which  cane  is  put  in  Europe  is  in  furniture  and  basket  making. 

In  the  United  States  rattan  is  used  in  a  great  variety  of  manufactures,  among 
which  UKxy  be  enumerated  chairs  and  other  articles  of  furniture,  chair  seating,  baby 
carriage  bodies,  baskets,  tloor  mattings,  brooms,  corset  stays,  whips,  and  other  uses 
of  minor  importance. 

Calamus  rudentum.     The  Ma-wewel. 

Several  species  of  rattan  i)alnis  abound  in  Ceylon.  Among  tlie  most  common 
are  C  rudentum,  C.  pachiistemonus,  and  ('.  radiatus  (the  luktd-u-el). 

These  palms  are  common  throughout  the  damp  forests  of  the  island  up  to  3,500 
feet  altitude.  In  some  districts  they  occur  in  great  abundance,  afl'ording  a  con- 
spicuous feature  in  the  forests,  their  tall  feathery  heads  overhanging  the  highest 
trees,  while  their  powerful  stems,  often  200  feet  in  length,  appear  like  green  cables 
coiling  about  the  ground  in  curious  contortions  and  disorder.  The  first  two  species 
named  are  very  largely  used  for  a  variety  of  purposes,  such  as  the  manufacture  of 
baskets,  chairs,  crates,  and  the  hoods  of  carts;  while,  split  into  strips  and  twisted, 
they  become  most  jjowerful  ropes.  A  very  large  trade  is  done  in  making  tables  and 
chairs  of  these  canes,  of  which  tlie  most  familiar  is  probal>ly  the  well-known  ''deck 
chair,"  to  be  found  on  every  passenger  shii>  in  eastern  waters.  The  two  smaller 
canes,  C.  paclujslemonus  and  C.  radiatus,  the  stems  of  which  only  attain  the  thickness 
of  a  pencil,  are  used  in  vast  quantities  for  the  manufacture  of  baskets  for  Ceylon 
tea  gardens,  for  receiving  the  tea  leaves  as  they  are  plucked  from  the  bushes;  in 
fact,  so  great  is  the  quantity  consumed  in  this  way  that  if  the  canes  used  in  these 
baskets  were  put  end  to  end  they  would  extend  for  some  thousands  of  miles.  In 
addition  to  its  use  in  basket  making,  C.  radiatus  supplies  the  material  for  making 
the  bottoms  of  chairs,  for  which  purpose  it  is  first  split  into  long  thin  strips  to  ren- 
der it  elastic  and  pliable.  Twisted,  the  lukul-wel  supplies  rope  for  towing  purposes, 
as  its  tenacity  is  prodigious.  Finally,  the  thin  strijjs  cut  from  this  caiid  are  used  for 
making  frames  for  hats  used  by  some  of  the  laboring  classes  in  Ceylon.  (Official 
Cat.  anil  Handbook,  Ceylon  Courts,  W.  C.  E.,  1893.) 

C.  equestris  is  a  scandent  palm  found  in  the  Moluccas,  or  Spice  Islands,  and  the 
Philippines,  and  also  cultivated  in  conservatories.  "  On  account  of  the  fiexibility 
and  elasticity  of  its  delicate  branches  it  is  nuuh  sought  for  making  harness,  the 
reins  of  bridles,"  etc. 

Calathea  zebrina.     Zebra  Plant. 

A  representative  species  of  a  genus  of  Marantacem  inhabiting  the  West  Indies  and 
South  America.  Bernardin  mentions  this  Jamaica  species  as  producing  a  fiber. 
"  The  species  are  natives  of  tropical  America,  and  some  of  them  are  in  cultivation  for 
the  sake  of  their  handsome  foliage,  especially  C.  zebrina,  the  leaves  of  whieh  have 
alternate  dark-colored  and  green  stripes.  The  leaves  of  some  of  the  South  American 
kinds  are  used  for  making  baskets."     {Dr.  Masters.) 

Caldera  bush  (see  randanus). 
Calla-wel  (Ceyl.).     See  Derris  scandens. 


104         USEFUL  FIBER  PLANTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 

Callicarpa  cana.    Arusha. 

An  India  shrub  (3  to  i  I'eet)  belonging  to  the  Verhenacea',  common  along  the  road- 
sides. Forbes  Royle  states  that  fiber  has  been  extracted  from  the  plant,  "but it 
does  not  appear  of  much  value  in  a  country  Avhere  so  many  others  abound."  Tested 
with  Russian  hemp  of  a  given  size,  the  aroosha  broke  at  127  pounds,  while  the  hemp 
stood  a  strain  of  400  pounds.  "It  possesses  all  the  free  and  kindly  nature  of  flax, 
and  even  swells  like  flax"  {Captain  Thompson.) 

Calmelia  (It.).     See  Daphne  mezerenni. 

Caloee  (Siam).     See  Boehmeria. 

Calotropis  gigantea.     Giant  Asclepias.    Madar;  Mudar. 

Exogen.     Asclepiadacew.     Perennial  shrub. 

Abounds  in  India,  Malay  Islands,  and  south  China.  "It  is  not  very  common  in 
Burma,  and  as  represented  by  the  doubtfully  distinct  species,  C.  procera,  it  is  dis- 
tributed to  Persia  and  tropical  Africa"  (  Watt). 

Bast  Fibkk. — The  species  yields  a  fine  fiber  in  the  bast,  while  the  seeds  are  envel- 
oped in  a  silk  cotton  known  as  maddr  floss.  In  th(!  .lavanese  exhibit  at  the  Chicago 
World's  Fair  two  fibrous  production.s  were  shown,  one  a  bast  fiber  of  good  color  and 
great  strength,  the  other  a  substance  resembling  cotton,  but  of  a  creamy  color.  The 
bast  fiber  was  derived  from  the  Giant  Asclei>ias  {€'.  y'ujanlea).  It  is  of  considerable 
value  in  Indian  pharmacy,  growing  Avild  upon  arid  wastes,  and  jiroducing  a  iiber  of 
superior  quality.  It  resembles  flax  somewhat  in  a]>pearance,  and  is  quite  strong. 
It  is  not  cultivated  in  India,  though  its  fiber  is  regarded  in  ^ladras,  where  the  plant 
grows  wild,  as  the  best  and  strongest  material  for  bowstrings  and  tiger  traps.  The 
plant  is  known  under  a  variety  of  names,  as  .Ishur  in  Arabic,  Muddr  and  Ak-Miiddar 
in  Hindoo ;  in  Madras  it  goes  by  the  name  of  Yercuni.  As  it  thrives  upon  soils  where 
nothing  else  will  grow,  needing  neither  culture  nor  water,  it  has  been  considered  an 
advisable  ])lant  for  bringing  waste  land  under  tillage  and  for  reclaiming  drifting 
sands. 

An  acre  of  ground  stocked  with  ]>lants  4  feet  apart  each  way  will  yield  10  tons  of 
green  stems  and  582  pounds  of  fiber  per  acre,  as  y)repared  bj-  native  methods,  which 
waste  25  per  cent.  The  liber  is  said  to  possess  many  of  the  qualities  of  flax  {Linum 
iisitatissimum),  though  it  is  somewhat  finer.  Its  fineness,  tenacity,  luster,  and  softness 
fit  it  for  many  industrial  ])iirposes.  It  is  said  to  be  better  adapted  for  textiles  than 
for  cordage,  and  that  it  may  readily  be  mixed  with  silk;  yet  it  shows  a  high  degree 
of  resistance  to  moisture.  "Samjiles  exposed  for  two  hours  to  steam  at  two  atmos- 
pheres, boiled  in  water  for  three  hours,  and  again  stcameil  for  four  hours,  lost  only 
5. 17  per  cent  by  weight,  as  compared  witli  flax,  3. .50;  manila  hemp,  0.07;  henij),  6.18- 
8.44;  coir,  8.13"  (Spon). 

The  mode  of  separating  the  fiber  as  practiced  by  the  natives  is  exceedingly  tedious 
aud  Avould  ])revent  the  material  from  becoming  an  article  of  commerce  unless  some 
more  speedy  and  less  trifling  way  for  preparing  it  could  be  discovered.  In  short, 
no  water  is  used,  and  everything  is  done  by  hand  manipulation,  assisted  by  the 
teeth.  Flax  machinery  might  facilitate  the  matter  if  it  was  desired  to  cultivate 
extensively  for  fiber.  As  to  its  cultivation,  "  it  is  difiicult  to  conceive  anything  less 
productive  than  dry  sand,  j'et  the  inuddr  thrives  in  it,  requiring  no  culture  and  no 
water."  Dr.  Wight  tested  samples  of  the  fiber  from  Madras,  where  it  is  much 
employed  for  fish  lines,  and  found  that  it  bore  a  strain  of  5.52  pounds  when  sunn 
hemp  bore  404  pounds  Royle's  experiments  gave  160  for  Russian  hemp  and  190 
pounds  each  for  Jubljtiljiore  hemp  (Crotalaria)  and  the  mitddr  or  Calotropis  (jigantea. 

In  the  autumn  of  1884,  while  testing  different  machines  in  their  power  ol  extracting 
the  libers  of  various  fiber  yielding  plants,  I  devoted  attention  to  tlie  dkunda  or  maddr 
amongst  other  plants.  I  had  already  studied  this  shrub  previously,  to  a  certain 
extent,  and  had  formed  a  hopeful  idea  of  it.  But  the  trials  just  alluded  to  have 
induced  me  to  alter  considerably  my  previous  opinion.     I  can  now  confidently  state 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  105 

that  the  hopes  expressed  by  previous  writers  and  by  myself  that  the  madtir  -vvoiild 
be  one  of  the  best  fiber  iiroducers  of  this  country  will  never  be  realized.  Its  liber 
is  certainly  fine,  strong,  white,  and  silky,  and  could  doubtless  be  extracted  in  a  ukt- 
chantable  condition  (though  none  of  the  machines  tested  by  me  produced  any  good 
results  with  it),  but  the  obstacles  to  its  profitable  utilization  on  a  large  scale  out 
weigh  its  natural  good  qualities:  (1)  The  very  small  proportion  of  the  fiber  to  wcigbt 
of  the  stems,  tlio  proportion  being  only  1.56  per  cent;  and  (2)  the  shortness  of  tin- 
fibers,  extending  as  they  xisually  do  from  joiiit  to  joint,  the  joints  being  from  .S  lo  S 
inches  apart.  These  two  chief  obstacles  are  sufficient  to  justify  a  withtlrawal  of  the 
maddr  from  the  list  of  hopeful  fiber-bearing  plants  of  India.  (L.  Liotard,  in  Die. 
Ec.  Prod.  lud.). 

Surface  Fiber. — The  cotton-like  substance  derived  from  the  pods  is  similar  to 
the  silkj'  hairs  of  the  common  milkweed,  though  coarser  and  less  silky.  The  sub- 
stance .shown  in  the  Javanese  exhibit  was  erroneously  stated  to  have  been  derive 
from  this  species.  The  Javanese  name  of  the  fiber  was  kapok,  and  the  kapok  of 
Java  is  the  product  Er'iodendron  atifracfuosiim.  The  cottony  fiber  of  C.  gigantea  i< 
said  to  have  been  manufactured  into  shawls  and  handkerchiefs,  but  it  hanlly 
possesses  sufficient  strength  to  be  spun  alone.  I  am  aware,  however,  that  a  soft 
kind  of  a  cloth  has  been  made  from  the  "down"  of  this  tree.  Dr.  "Walker,  jirisou 
superintendent,  Agra,  sent  to  the  London  Exhibition  of  1862  three  specimens  of  this 
cloth,  as  follows:  ilade  entirely  of  miiddr  lloss;  made  of  one  part  cotton  and  out- 
part  tloss;  and  made  of  three  parts  cotton  and  one  part  doss.  A  rug  ma<le  of  the 
floss  was  also  exhibited.  It  has  also  been  used  in  the  manufacture  of  paper.  There 
are  several  other  species  of  plants  belonging  to  the  Asrlejiiadaccw,  that  are  kuown  to 
the  vegetable  economy  as  fiber  producers,  and  found  chiefly  in  the  ('Id  World. 

The  maddr  is  not  alone  a  fiber  plant,  as  it  produces  gutta-percha,  varnish,  dye,  medi- 
cine, and  a  liquor,  and  besides  it  is  useful  in  the  domestic  economy. 

Savorgnan  mentions  C.  procera,  the  fiber  of  which  presents  some  of  the  character- 
istics of  the  above. 

Camelina  sativa. 

Exogen.  Crucifera'.  Annual  herb,  2  feet. 
"Cultivated  in  nuddle  and  southern  Europe  and  in  tem])erate  Asia  for  its  fiber, 
but  especially  for  its  oil''  (Spon).  There  are  several  Knropeau  and  North  American 
sjiecies  of  this  genus.  "The  stems  of  C.  saiira  contain  a  considerable  proportion  of 
fiber,  and  are  commonly  used  for  making  brooms  in  many  parts  of  Europe"  (A. 
SniHh).  It  is  sometimes  known  as  false  flax  and  is  a  bad  weed  in  some  places.  It 
produces  a  bast  fiber. 

Canielote,  or  Gamelote  (Venez.).     Fanieum  myuriis. 

Camona  (Peru).     Iriartea  dcItouJea.     See  also  Ma^atinazia. 

Cananio  (Peru).     Cannabis  sativa. 

Canapa  (It.).     See  Cannabis  satira. 

Canapaccia  (It.).     See  Artemisia  riih/aris. 

Canapiiia  (S.  Am.).     See  Abutilon  avicemuv. 

Candee  rush  (Vict.).     See  Jnncus  effnsns. 

Cane,  The  Rattan  (see  Calamus  rotang,  aud  Calamus  rudentiim). 

Cane  fiber  (T.  S.).     See  Arundinaria  tecta. 

Canna  (It.). 

"Canna  da  stiioje,"  etc.,  cane  for  mats.     "Common  generic  name  for  a  great  many 
plants  of  the  Graminea',  more  or  less  marshy  in  their  growing  localities,  especially 


106  USEFUL   FIBER   PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

the  Arundo  donax,  with  the  stems  of  which  are  braided  mats  and  matting,  fishing 
baskets,"  etc.  {Savorgnan).  This  should  not  be  confounded  with  the  ornamental 
plant  known  as  Canna,  or  Indian  shot. 

Cannabis  sativa.     Common  Hemp^ 

Exogen.     TJriicacea'.     Annual  shrub,  6  to  15  feet. 

Common  and  native  names. — Hemp  (Eng.) ;  Chanrre  (Fr.) ;  jB'an/(Ger.) ;  Canapa 
(It.);  KonapU  (Rns.);  Band  (Pers.);  (Ihniiga  (Beug.);  Asa  (Jap.);  Chti-ts-ao 
(Chma).     The  .Sanskrit  name  of  the  plant  is  Bhanf/a  ;  in  Hindostau  it  is  called 
Ganja;  the  Arab  name  is  Einnuh,  Eanah,  or  Kauitah,  from  which,  doubtless,  its 
Latin  name,  Cannahis,  is  derived. 
Its  native  homo  is  India  and  Persia,  but  it  is  in  general  cultivation  in  many  parts 
of  the  world,  both  iu  temperate  and  more  tropical  climes.    Its  cultivation  is  an  estab- 
lished indnstrj'^  iu  the  United  States,  Kentucky,  Missouri,  and  Illinois  being  the 
chief  sources  of  supply,  though  the  culture  has  extended  as  far  north  as  Minnesota 
and  as  far  south  as  the  Mississippi  Delta,  while  California  has  recently  become  inter- 
ested in  its  growth.     Fig.  .3,  PI.  V,  shows  a  growth  of  hemi>  in  Kern  County,  Cal., 
where  it  reaches  a  height  of  12  to  15  feet.     Tliis  hemp  is  of  remarkably  fine  quality, 
and  it  brings  an  extra  ])rice  in  1he  New  Y(nk  market. 

Several  varieties  are  recognized  in  cultivation  in  this  country,  that  cultivated  in 
Kentucky,  and  having  a  hollow  stem,  being  the  nio.st  common.  China  hemp,  with 
slender  stems,  growing  very  erect,  has  a  wide  range  of  culture.  Snij-rna  Lemj)  is 
adapted  to  cultivation  over  a  still  wider  range,  and  a  variety  is  beginning  to  be 
cultivated  in  California  known  as  Japanese  hcivip,  but  which  is  doubtb-ss  indentical 
with  China  hemp.  In  Europe  five  varieties  are  cultivated,  which  are  enumerated  as 
follows:  The  connnou  hemp,  grown  largely  in  France,  and  generally  iu  Europe  out- 
side of  Italy,  growing  to  a  height  of  5  to  7. feet.  IJologne  hemp,  known  in  France  as 
Piedmontese  hemp,  or  Great  hemp,  an  Italian  variety  averaging  12  feet  in  height. 
Chinese  hemp,  known  in  Europe  since  184fi,  and  said  to  have  been  imported  by  Sig- 
ner Itier.  It  is  stated  that  in  Algiers  this  hemp  has  been  grown  to  a  height  of  20 
feet,  and  that  its  fiber  is  remarkably  fine  and  wonderfully  elastic.  The  Canapa 
piccola,  or  small  hemp  of  Italy,  is  another  variety,  with  a  reddish  stalk,  which  is 
found  in  the  valley  of  the  Arno  and  around  Tuscany.  The  fifth  variety  is  the  Ara- 
bian hemp  known  as  Takroitsi,  a  short  species  cultivated  for  its  resinous  principle 
from  which  hasheesh  is  derived. 

Bast  Fibei:. — In  the  literature  of  fiber-producing  plants  of  the  world  the  word 
hemji  appears  fre<iuently,  applied  oftentimes  to  fibers  that  are  widely  distinct  from 
each  other.  The  word  is  usually  employed  with  a  prefix,  even  when  tht^  true  hemp 
is  meant,  as  manila  hemp,  sisal  hemp,  Russian  hemp,  etc.  The  hemp  jilant  ])ro])er, 
the  C.  satira  of  the  botanists,  has  been  so  generally  cultivated  the  world  over  as  a 
cordage  fiber  that  the  value  of  all  other  fibers  as  to  the  strergth  and  durability  is 
estimated  by  it,  and  iu  many  of  the  experinaents  of  Roxburgh  and  others  we  find 
"Russian  liemp"  or  "best  English  hemp"' taken  as  standards  of  comparison.  The 
fiber  is  produced  for  export  chiefly  in  Russia  and  Poland,  much  of  it  being  dark  in 
color  and  low  in  grade.  It  approaches  nearer  to  American  hemp  than  any  other. 
French  or  Breton  hemp  is  fine,  white,  and  lustrous;  but  little,  if  any,  is  exported, 
as  the  homo  demand  equals  the  supply.  Italian  hem])  is  the  highest  grade  which 
comes  to  our  market,  2,500  tons  having  been  received  in  1894-95,  out  of  a  total  import 
of  about  6,000  tons. 

A  sample  of  Persian  hemp  in  the  Department  collection  is  the  sim]de  stripped 
bast.  It  is  light  in  color  and  very  strong.  A  sample  of  Siamese-hemp  bast  also 
shown  is  so  rough  that  it  appears  like  another  fiber.  Hemp  grows  in  all  parts  of 
India,  and  in  many  districts  flourishes  in  a  wild  state.  It  is  but  little  cultivated  for 
its  fiber,  although  Bombay-grown  hemp  at  one  time  "was  jiroved  to  be  superior  to 
the  Russian."  In  portions  of  India,  as  well  as  other  hot  countries,  it  is  cultivated 
for  its  narcotic  i^roducts,  the  great  value  of  which  makes  the  India  cultivators  indif- 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE. 


107 


fereiit  about  the  fiber.  The  raw  hemp  prodnced  in  Japan  is  usirally  sold  in  tlie  form 
of  ribbons,  thin  as  jiajjer,  but  as  smooth  and  glossy  as  satin,  a  light  straw  color,  the 
frayed  ends  showing  a  fiber  of  exceeding  fineness.  Beautiful  samples  of  tliis  hemp 
wer<>  secured  by  the  Department  at  the  World's  C'olumliian  Exposition,  togfther 
with  many  samples  of  manufactures.  The  fiber  is  largely  grown  in  .lapau  for  tlie 
manufacture  of  cloth  and  the  indu.stry  is  very  old,  as  prior  to  the  introduction  of 
silk  weaving  it  was  the  only  textile  fabric  of  the  country. 

UsKS. — Largely  employed  in  the  T'nited  States  for  small  twines  and  cordage,  bind- 
ing twines,  etc.  Formerly  large  areas  were  devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  the  plant 
in  the  United  States,  and  thirty-five  years  ago  nearly  40,000  tons  of  hemi>  was  pro- 
duced in  Kentucky  alone,  while  now  hardly  more  than  a  fourth  of  this  ([uantity  is 
produced  in  the  whole  country. 
There  are  several  reasons  for  the 
decline  in  production  in  the 
United  States,  but  it  dates  back, 
prim.'irily,  to  the  decline  in  Amer- 
ican shipbuilding  and  to  the  in- 
troduction of  the  Philippine  Is- 
land hemp  (Miisa  tejiilis),  the 
manila  hemp  of  commerce,  and 
later  to  the  large  importation  of 
jute.  Quite  recently  there  has 
been  a  further  falling  oft'  in  pro- 
duction, and  it  is  worthy  of  note 
that  this  is  largely  due  to  the 
overproduction  of  this  same  hemp 
of  Manila,  brought  about  by  the 
high  prices  of  the  latter  fiber  in 
1890-91,  a  direct  result  of  the 
manipulation  of  the  fiber  market 
by  certain  binding-twine  manu- 
facturers. In  past  years  the  hemp 
of  Kentucky  was  not  only  used 
for  the  rigging  of  vessels,  and  in 
twines  or  yarns,  and  bagging,  but 
it  was  spun  and  woven  into  cloth, 
just  as  to-day  it  is  manufactured 
into  fabrics  in  portions  of  P>rit- 
tany. 

Culture. — As  m  Breton 
J'rance,  so  in  Kentucky,  limestone 
soils,  or  the  alluvial  soils,  such  as 
are  found  in  the  river  bottoms, 
are  best  adapted  to  this  plant. 
The  culture,  therefore,  is  quite  general  along  the  smaller  streams  of  Brittany,  where 
tlie  climate  is  mild  and  the  atmosphere  humid;  and  in  Kentucky  the  best  lands  only 
are  chosen  for  hemp,  and  the  most  favorable  results  being  obtained  where  there  is 
an  underlying  bed  of  blue  limestone.  As  a  general  rule,  light  or  dry  soils  or  heavy, 
tenacious  soils  are  most  unfavorable. 

Hemp  is  not  considered  a  very  exhaustive  crop.  It  is  stated  by  a  successful  Ken- 
tucky grower  that  virgin  soil  sown  to  hemp  can  be  followed  with  this  crop  for  fifteen 
to  twenty  years  successively;  alternating  then  with  small  grain  or  clover,  it  can  be 
grown  every  third  year,  without  fertilizers,  almost  indefinitely.  In  France  a  rotation 
of  crops  is  practiced,  hemp  alternating  with  grain  crops,  although  competent  authori- 
ties state  that  it  may  also  be  allowed  to  grow  continuously  upon  the  same  land,  but 
not  without  fertilizers.     Regarding  this  mode  of  cultivation,  they  consider  that  it  is 


Fig.  37. — The  Hcini)  i)laut,  Cannafns  sativa. 


108  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

not  contrary  to  the  law  of  rotation,  as  by  deep  plowing  and  the  annnal  nse  of  an 
abundance  of  fertilizer  the  ground  is  kejit  sufficiently  enriched  forthe  demands  which 
are  }uade  upon  it.  If  the  soil  is  not  sufficiently  rich  in  phosphates  or  the  salts  of 
potassium,  these  must  be  supplied  by  the  use  of  lime,  marl,  ground  bones,  animal 
charcoal,  or  a.shes  mixed  with  prepared  animal  compost.  Even  hemp  cake,  the  leaves 
of  the  plant,  and  the  ''shive,"  or  "boon,"  maybe  returned  to  the  land  with  benefit. 
This  high  fertilizing  is  necessary,  as  the  hemp  absorbs  the  equivalent  of  1,500  kilos 
of  fertilizers  per  every  hundred  kilos  of  iiber  obtained.  In  Japan,  where  most  excel- 
lent heuip  is  produced,  the  ground  is  given  a  heavy  dressing  of  barnyard  manure 
before  it  is  plowed  in  November.  After  the  soil  has  been  well  pulverized  and  reduced 
to  iinc  tilth,  the  seed  is  drilled  and  the  land  given  a  top  dressing  composed  of  one 
part  fish  guano,  two  parts  wood  ashes,  and  four  parts  animal  manure.  The  pro])or- 
tions  and  tlie  quantities  used  differ,  of  course,  upon  ditt'ereut  soils.  In  New  York, 
where  hemp  was  formerly  grown,  barnyard  manures  or  standard  fertilizers  were  used, 
as  it  was  considered  essential  to  put  the  soil  in  good  fertility  to  make  a  successful 
croi).     A  Kentucky  i)ractice  is  to  burn  the  refuse  and  spread  the  ashes  over  the  land. 

As  in  flax  culture,  a  careful  and  thorough  preparation  of  the  seed  bed  is  important, 
for  the  finer  and  more  mellow  the  ground  the  better  will  be  the  fiber.  Soil  jirepara- 
tion  in  the  blue-grass  region  of  Kentucky  consists  in  a  fall  or  early  spring  plowing, 
and  a  short  time  before  seeding,  which,  in  general  terms,  is  about  corn-])lantiiig  time, 
the  ground  is  thoroughly  pulverized  by  means  of  an  improved  harrow,  such  as  the 
disk  harrow,  after  which  it  is  made  smooth.  The  date  of  planting  A-aries  according 
to  whether  the  soil  is  wet  or  dry  and  may  range  from  the  last  week  in  March  to  the 
last  week  in  April,  or  even  the  1st  of  May.  In  Shell)y  County,  Ky.,  the  ordinary 
grain  drill  is  used  for  l)roadeast  seeding.  The  rubber  pipes  are  removed  from  the 
drill,  and  a  board  is  attached  directly  beneath  the  hopi>er.  The  seed  falling  upon 
the  board  is  scattered  in  front  of  the  drill  hoes,  which  do  tiie  covering.  A  light  drag 
pasi-ed  over  the  field  levels  and  evens  the  surface,  after  which  nothing  is  done  until 
the  hemp  is  ready  for  the  harvest. 

The  quantity  of  seed  sown  to  the  acre  varies  in  different  practice  from  33  pounds 
to  1  to  li  bushels.  In  New  York  1  to  3  bushels  have  been  sown,  1  bushel  giving  bet- 
ter results  than  a  larger  (luantity.  In  Illinois  it  varies  from  1  to  2}  bushels.  In 
France  a  ditlerence  is  made  regarding  the  use  to  which  the  fiber  will  be  put,  a  third 
nu>re  seed  being  sown  for  spinning  fiber  than  for  cordage  fiber.  On  a  farm  in  Sarthe, 
visited  liy  the  writer,  a  little  less  than  3  bushels  to  the  acre  was  the  usual  quantity 
sown,  but  as  high  as  4  bushels  are  sown  on  some  farms.  There  will  be  little  trouble 
wilh  weeds  if  the  first  crop  is  well  destroyed  by  the  spring  jilowing,  for  hemp  gen- 
erally occupies  all  the  ground,  giving  weeds  but  little  chance  to  intrude.  For  this 
reason  the  j)lant  is  an  .admirable  weed  killer,  and  in  flax-growing  countries  is  some- 
times employed  as  a  crop,  in  rotation,  to  precede  llax,  because  it  puts  the  soil  in  good 
condition. 

In  Kentucky  the  hemp  stalks  are  considered  ready  to  cut  in  one  hundred  days,  or 
when  the  first  ripe  seed  is  found  in  the  heads.  The  cutting  is  usually  done  with  a 
hooked  implement,  or  knife  bent  at  right  angles  about  21  inches  from  the  hand.  In 
recent  years,  however,  the  work  is  sometimes  done  by  machines  adapted  to  the  pur- 
pose, and  jiarticularly  when  the  stalks  are  slender.  The  foreign  practices  relating 
to  the  harvesting  differ  materially  from  those  usually  followed  in  this  country.  They 
are  fully  described,  however,  in  Report  No.  8  of  the  Fiber  Investigations  series  issued 
by  the  Department,  to  which  the  reader  is  referred. 

In  this  country  when  the  stalks  are  cut  they  are  laid  in  rows,  even  at  the  butts, 
and  are  allowed  to  remain  on  the  ground  not  over  a  week  to  dry — only  long  enough, 
as  one  correspondent  expresses  it,  to  get  a  rain  on  the  leaves,  so  that  they  will  drop 
off"  readily.  When  the  rain  is  too  long  deferred,  however,  tlie  hemp  should  be  \n\t 
in  shocks,  or  small  stacks,  having  been  first  made  into  bundles  of  convenient  size  for 
easy  handliug.  Hemp  is  usually  dew  retted — that  is,  spread  evenly  over  the  ground 
to  undergo  the  action  of  the  elements  which  dissolve  or  rot  out  the  gums  holding 


DESCKIPTIVE    CATALOGUE. 


109 


the  filaments  together.  Formerly  pool,  or  water,  rettiug  was  practiced  ia  a  very 
small  way  in  Kentucky  and  to  a  slight  extent  later  in  Illinois.  The  hemp  is  allowed 
to  remain  in  stack  until  November  or  December,  or  about  two  mouths,  when  it  is 
spread  over  the  grouud  until  retted.  No  rule  can  be  given  regarding  tlic  prosier 
length  of  time  that  the  hemp  should  lie,  as  this  varies  according  to  the  weather, 
sudden  freezing,  followed  by  thaws,  hasteuing  the  opia-atiou.  It  is  usually  allowed 
to  lie  until  the  bast  separates  readily  from  the  woody  portion  of  the  stalk.  When 
there  is  a  large  crop  there  may  be  an  advantage  in  spreading  the  hemp  earlier  than 
November,  in  order  that  the  breakiug  uuiy  be  done  in  the  winter  mouths.  Winter- 
retted  hemp  is  brighter,  however,  than  that  retted  in  October.  It  is  usually  stacked 
and  spread  upou  the  same  grouud  upon  which  it  is  growu,  and  when  suiiicieutly 
retted,  as  can  be  determined  by  breakiug  out  a  little,  it  is  again  put  into  shocks.  If 
the  hemp  be  dry,  the  shocks  should  be  tied  around  the  top  tightly  with  a  baud  of 
hemp  to  keep  out  the  rain.  The  shocks  are  made  firm  by  tying  with  a  band  the  first 
aimful  or  two,  raising  it  up  and  beating  it  well  agaiust  the  ground.  The  reuuiiuder 
of  the  hemp  is  set  u]}  around  this  central  support.  By  flaring  at  the  bottom,  and 
tying  well,  a  firm  shock 
can  be  made  that  will 
stand  firmly  without  dan- 
ger of  being  blown  over 
by  the  wind. 

Asthe  bestheuip  which 
comes  to  our  market  is 
that  grown  in  Italy,  a 
few  words  on  the  Italian 
practice  will  not  be  out 
of  place.  Several  varie- 
ties are  cultivated  in 
Italy,  the  soil  chosen 
being  a  soft,  deep,  sedi- 
mentary formation,  aud 
this  is  twice  plowed  in 
November,  fifteen  days 
intervening  between  the 
twojilowiugs.  The  quan- 
tity of  seed  sown  varies  according  to  the  soil,  climate,  and  variety  of  hemp,  but  in 
Lombardy  the  average  quantity  is  200  liters  j)er  liectare,  or  about  2^  Imshels  per  acre. 
The  crop  is  well  fertilized,  but  not  excessively,  and  regard  is  had  to  ecouomy  of  cost. 
In  addition  to  other  fertilizers,  in  Bologna,  Professor  Marconi  namee  the  following: 
First,  manure  and  olive  husks  (after  the  last  pressing);  second,  manure  and  excre- 
ment from  hens  (little  used  but  very  efficacious) ;  third;  manure  and  chrysalides  of 
worms,  1.  e.,  silk  worms;  fourth,  manure  and  olive  husks  with  one  or  more  of  the 
others.  The  guide  for  harvesting  the  crop  is  the  state  of  maturity  of  the  tops,  which 
become  yellow,  and  the  white  appearance  at  the  foot  of  the  stalks.  First,  the  male 
plants  are  harvested  and  twenty  or  twenty-four  days  later  the  female  plants.  These 
two  operations  are  never  retarded  nor  precipitated.  After  cutting,  the  stalks  are 
removed  to  a  shady  place  and  the  tops  inclined  over  a  sort  of  trestle  to  dry.  Ten  or 
twelve  handfuls  of  stalks  form  a  bundle  of  equal  length  stems  for  the  o])cration  of 
macerating. 

In  favorable  soils  Italian  hemp  averages  a  yield  of  1,700  to  2,200  pounds  of  dry 
stalks  per  acre,  which  produce  from  450  to  530  pounds  of  fiber.  "In  general,  100 
kilos  of  raw  hemp  furnish  25  kilos  of  raw  filasse,  and  100  kilos  of  ordinary  (ilasse 
(fiber)  give  65  kilos  combed  filasse  and  32  kilos  of  tow;  100  kilos  of  seed  furnish  27 
kilos  of  oil."     {Saror(jnan.)     A  kilo  is  2.2  pounds. 

The  stalks  are  retted  in  water  and  either  dried  in  the  open  air,  in  furnaces,  or  in 
treuches,  the  last  practice  being  rarely  followed.  Drying  in  the  open  air  has  advantages 


vN^^ 


Fig.  as.— Xeiitucky  bemp  br.ike. 


110 


USEFUL  FIBER  PLANTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


over  any  otlier  method;  first,  less  expensive;  second,  ii  superior  bleaching  of  the 
fiber.  In  the  ovens  the  operation  is  hastened,  and  many  times  this  is  a  verj'  desirable 
system.  In  a  perfectly'  dry  atmosphere  three  to  six  days  sul'iice  for  drying  thorougLly. 
The  stalks  are  again  put  into  bundles  and  placed  in  dry  locations,  safe  from  rodents. 
The  drying  by  artilicial  heat  is  done  in  common  Ijread  ovens,  but  the  temperature 
should  be  very  moderate;  usually  the  hemp  is  introduced  one  hour  or  one  hour  and 
a  half  after  the  removal  of  the  bread  from  the  oven.  The  hemp  stalks  are  decorti- 
cated in  various  ways,  by  hand  processes  of  beating,  or  by  machinery.  The  French 
brake,  -which  is  somewhat  similar  to  the  Kentucky  brake,  is  little  used,  though  a 
machine  quite  as  primitive  is  largelj'  employed.  In  this  device  the  stalks  are  first 
crushed,  then  cleaned  by  beating.  The  hemp  is  not  ready 
for  market  when  it  Comes  from  this  machine,  but  is  fur- 
ther cleaned,  and  the  bits  of  wood,  etc.,  which  adhere  to 
the  libers  are  cjirefully  removed.  See  Hemp  Machinery  in 
Ajipendix  A.     Fig.  38  is  a  Kentucky  hemp  brake. 

The  market  prices  for  American  rough  hemp  at  the  pres- 
ent time  may  be  stated  at  $10  to  $S()  per  ton  for  Missouri 
and  $135  per  ton  for  Kentucky.  No  recent  figures  are  at 
h;ind  showing  cost  of  production,  but  in  1890,  counting 
a  man  and  a  team  worth  $3.r)0per  day,  the  cost  of  produc- 
ing an  acre  of  hemp  in  Kentucky  was  shown  to  be  about 
$24.  The  average  yield  is  about  1,000  pounds  per  acre, 
but  this  is  frequently  exceeded  by  several  hundred 
pounds. 

'iSpiciiiicns. — Field  Col.  Mus. ;  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus. ;  Mus. 
U.  S.  Dept.  Ag. 

Canoe  birch  (see  Bctula  papurifera). 
Capas,  or  Kapas.     Gossi/pium. 
Capo  di  bue  (It.).     See  Antirrhinum. 
Caraguata  (Arg.).     Sec  Bromelia  urgvniina. 
Caraiia. 

Orton  gives  this  as  the  Brazilian  name  of  a  tine  glossy 
fiber  from  a  species  of  Bromelia,  from  which  ropes  are 
made. 

Carex  brizoides,  et  sp.  div. 

Endogen.     Cyperacio'.    A  sedge. 
-,„„,,  .    ,  ,  This  and  the  two  species  of  Carex,  which  follow,  are 

mentioned  in  the  Manual  Hoepli,  and  are  presumably 
Italian  species.  They  are  sedges  or  rushes.  C.  brizoides  can  be  employed  as  a 
substitute  for  Esparto  in  brush  making,  and  is  woven.  The  species  appears  in 
Beruardiu's  list  as  Alpcngrass,  from  Holland.  C.  pend^da  is  employed  for  chair 
seating,  its  Italian  wa.meXwAng  Sala  per  seggiole.  C'.j>a/H(?osffl  supplies  similar  material 
and  is  known  by  the  simple  name  Sala. 

Other  species  of  Carex  are  mentioned  in  the  Official  Guide  Kew  Mus.,  as  follows: 
C.  tereticauUs  is  an  Australian  species,  that  has  been  employed  by  the  Murray  Kiver 
native  tribe  for  net  making.  Guilfoyle  names  the  species  as  paper  stock.  C.  lepo- 
rina  is  employediu  Switzerland  for  stuffing  furniture.  The  culms  of  ('.  rhynchoplujsa 
are  used  for  making  table  mats  in  Japan,  and  C.  paniculata,  in  England,  is  employed 
for  hassocks  and  brooms.  The  species  is  also  mentioned  by  Guilfoyle  as  a  good  paper 
s<tock.     See  Fig.  39. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  Ill 

Carex  vulpinoidea  (?).    Slough  Grass. 

A  species  of  Carex  or  sedge  supposed  to  be  C.  vulpinoidea  has  been  used  to  some 
extent  in  the  manufacture  in  Iowa,  under  the  Lowry  patents,  of  a  grass  biudin"- 
fcwine.  Samples  of  this  twine  in  the  Department  collection  show  a  strand  composed 
of  the  grass  leaves,  held  together  by  means  of  a  thread  or  fine  twine  which  winds 
spirally  about  the  mass,  forming  a  continuous  "twine,"  or  tying  substance,  of 
considerable  strength. 

C.  rul^yinoidea  is  a  very  common  sedge  in  this  State  (Iowa)  in  rather  low  places.  I 
am  not  familiar  with  the  manufacture  of  this  twine,  bnt  am  of  the  opinion  that  this 
may  not  have  been  the  only  species  that  was  used.  There  are  several  species  which 
have  tough,  librous  stems.  Professor  Budd  informs  me  that  this  sedge  was  largely 
used  in  tying  sacks,  and  that  it  is  of  excellent  quality.     (Prof.  L.  H.  Pammel.) 

Mr.  Lowry,  the  patentee,  makes  the  following  statements  regarding  the  manu- 
facture of  this  twine : 

The  grass  for  twine  should  be  cut  the  latter  part  of  July  or  early  in  August ;  if  cut 
earlier  it  is  pulpy  aud  has  no  strength;  if  allowed  to  grow  longer  the  slender  tops 
wither  off  and  the  stalk  becomes  brittle.  It  is  cut  with  a  reaper,  which  delive'rs  from 
the  platform  straight  and  in  gavels;  the  following  day  the  gavels  are  bound  and 
'•stooked  "  or  "  shocked  "  on  the  butt  ends,  as  is  done  with  grain,  and  allowed  to  dry 
or  "cure"  for  about  three  days,  when  it  is  stacked  or  baled  for  shipment.  The  vield 
is  from  li  to  2  tons  per  acre.  In  baling,  it  is  necessary,  for  twine,  that  it  should  be 
kept  straight.  The  first  process  is  putting  it  through  the  combing  machine  to  remove 
the  short  grass  and  any  weeds  there  may  be  among  it.  The  machines  as  made  at 
present  have  each  a  capacity  of  7,500  yards  per  hour.  The  machine  takes  the  grass 
from  the  hopper,  twists  it,  puts  the  thread  around  it,  and  bales  it.  The  labor  of 
combing  the  grass  and  feeding  the  machine  is  light  work  and  could  be  done  by  boys 
or  girls.  One  ton  of  grass  yields  about  1,850  pounds  of  twine  and  250  pounds  of  hay. 
For  binder  twine  it  requires  no  treatment  of  any  kind,  but  it  should  not  be  subjected 
to  excessive  moisture  or  artificial  heat. 

"  Specimens. — Field  Col.  Mus. ;  Mus.  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag. 

Careya  arborea. 

A  deciduous  tree,  found  in  India,  which  yields  a  gum,  tan  bark,  dye,  medicine, 
fruit,  and  fiber.  "The  bark  yields  a  good  fiber  for  coarse  cordage,  and  a  stuff  suit- 
able for  brown  paper  of  good  quality.  Silk  worms  feed  on  the  leaves.  The  fibrous 
bark  is  used  in  Mysor  as  a  slow  match  to  ignite  gunpowder,  and  in  many  parts  of 
India  as  fusees  for  matchlocks."     (Die.  Ec.  Prod.  Ind.). 

Carica  papaya.    The  Papaw  of  the  Tropics. 

While  celebrated  for  its  fruit,  it  yields  a  fiber  that  may  be  obtained  5  feet  long, 
and  is  mentioned  in  the  lists  of  liernardin  and  the  Flax  and  Hemji  Commission  and 
alluded  to  by  Dr.  Watt.     Of  qnestionable  utility. 

Carludovica  palmata. 

Endogen.     Cyclanthacew. 

The  plants  of  this  genus  are  found  in  tropical  South  America  and  in  Central  America. 
C.  palmata  is  a  stemless  species,  ''connuon  in  shady  places  all  over  Panama  and  along 
tlie  coast  of  New  Granada  [United  States  of  Columbia]  and  Ecuador." 

The  leaves^  which  are  plaited  like  a  fan,  "  are  borne  ou  three-cornered  stalks  from 
6  to  14  feet  high.  They  are  about  4  feet  in  diameter  and  deeply  cut  into  four  or  five 
aivisions,  each  of  which  is  again  cut.  The  leaves  are  cut  while  young,  aud  the  stiff 
parallel  veins  removed,  after  wfiich  tlu-y  are  slit  into  shreds,  but  not  separated  at 
the  stalk  end,  and  immersed  in  boiling  water  iov  a  short  time  and  then  bleached  in 
the  sun."     (J.  Smith.) 

Specimens  of  the  prepared   leaves,  in  bundles,  were   obtained  from  the  several 


112 


USEFUL  FIBER  PLANTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


Ceutrai  and  South  American  collections  at  the  W.  C.  E.,  1893,  and  are  preserved  in 
tlie  National  Museum  and  the  Museum  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture.  These 
always  have  the  ap])earance  of  a  bundle  of  straws.  The  leaf  is  split  in  narrow  strips, 
Avhich  are  dried  in  the  sun.  Under  the  action  of  the  heat  they  roll  up  into  this  straw- 
like form,  and  it  only  remains  to  Ideach  and  weave  them. 

Uses. — The  leaves  are  plaited  into  many  useful  objects,  the  best  known  being  the 
celebrated  Panama  hats,  which  have  been  sold  as  high  a  $150  apiece.  It  is  said  that 
the  hats  of  superior  quality  are  plaited  from  a  single  leaf  Avithont  any  joinings. 
Ci" ar  cases,  small  bags,  and  similar  objects  are  also  made  from  these  leaves. 

"Specimens. — Mus.  U.  S.  Dept. 

Ag.    U.  S.  Nat.  Mus.    Phil.  Com. 

Mus. 

Carnauba  palm    (Braz.). 

See  Copcrnicia. 

Carnestolendas  (Venez.). 
Goch losperm v m  f/ oss yp- 
hint. 

Carolinea  fastuosa  ( Mex.). 
See  Fachira. 

Carya.     See  Hicoria. 

Caryota  urens.  Kittool 
Palm.   JacgeryPalm. 

Endogen.       J'aliini.       Palm 

tree,  (50  feet.     See  iig.  40. 

Common  in  the  eastern   and 

western  moist  zone  pf  India  and 

has    long    been  known   to    the 

native  inhabitants   of    Ceylon. 

"In   places  it  has   been  iutro- 

duced  by  the  natives  into  their 

gardens,  as  it  yields  so   much 

that  enters  into  the  economy  of 

their  daily  life,  while  affording 

a  remarkable  commodity  in  the 

form  of  jaggery  or  native  sugar." 

(Handbook  of  Ceylon,  W.  C.  E,, 
Fig.  40— The  Kittoi)!  palm,  Caryota  urens.  „  „ 

Structural  Fiber.— Brownish  black,  the  filaments  straight,  smooth,  and  glossy 
It  (•xliil)its  considerable  tenacity  and  will  bear  twisting,  as  the  liber  is  somewhat 
elastic.  Some  of  the  lilaments  resemble  horsehair  very  closely,  and,  drawn  between 
the  thumb  and  nail  of  the  forelinger,  curl  as  readily  as  coir.  Samples  of  fiber  from 
this  palm  as  well  as  tow  prepared  from  it  were  received  from  the  Philippine  Islands 
and  from  Victoria,  the  latter  prepared  by  Dr.  Guilfoyle.  It  is  indigenous  in  north- 
ern Australia.  In  Jtlalabar  it  is  called  Shunda-pana,  in  Burma  M'uibaw,  and  the  Siu- 
galese  name  is  KUtiil  or  Kiltool.  It  is  a  beautiful  tree,  growing  to  a  height  of  (50  feet, 
and  surmounted  by  an  elegant  crown  of  graceful  curved  leaves.  The  tree  is  a  foot 
in  «liameter.  The  fiber,  which  is  black  and  very  coarse,  is  useful  for  making  ropes, 
brushes,  brooms,  b.iskets,  etc. ;  and  a  woolly  substance  or  scurf  scraped  from  the  leaf- 
stalks is  used  for  calking  boats.  It  is  also  extensively  used  in  machine  brushes  for 
polishing  linen  and  cotton  yarns,  for  cleaning  flax  liber  after  it  is  scutched,  for 
brushing  velvets,  and  other  similar  purposes.     In  Ceylon  the  black  fiber  is  mauufac- 


^^^=s^^^^^^^^=- 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  113 

tured  into  ropea  of  great  streugth  aiul  tlural)ility,  which  are  used  for  tyiug  elephants. 
It  is  both  regnhir  and  compact,  and  its  manufacture  exhibits  considerable  skill.  In 
Australia,  Dr.  Guilfoylesays,  it  is  used  for  making  paper.  As  high  as  $16,000  worth 
of  this  fiber  has  been  exported  from  Ceylon  in  a  single  year;  it  enters  largely  into 
the  manufacture  of  brushes,  and  there  is  a  considerable  demand.  '"The  fiber,  as  it 
is  called,  forms  at  the  base  of  the  leaves  of  the  palm,  in  a  strong  sort  of  bracing,  that 
tends  to  hold  the  leaf  against  the  stem  as  it  appears  on  both  sides  of  the  blade  of  the 
leafstalk.  This  is  removed  with  a  kuil'e  from  the  fallen  leaves,  and  then  cleaned,  to 
free  it  from  extraneous  matter,  and  finally  put  u])  into  bobbins,  in  shape  not  unlike 
a  torpedo,  when  it  is  ready  lor  sale.  Hopes,  and  even  fishing  lines,  are  made  from 
kitul  fiber,  as  it  is  easily  twisted  into  fine  cord,  and  is  strong  and  durable."  (Hand- 
book of  Ceylon.) 

When  first  imported  the  finer  fibers  were  used  for  mixing  with  horsehair  for  stutF- 
iug  cushions.  As  the  fiber  is  imported  it  is  of  a  dusky-brown  color,  but  after  it 
arrives  here  it  is  cleaned,  combed,  and  arranged  in  long,  straight  fiber.s,  after  which 
it  is  steeped  in  linseed  oil  to  make  it  more  jdiable ;  this,  also,  has  the  eff'ect  of  darken- 
ing it,  and  it  becomes,  indeed,  almost  black.  It  is  softer  and  more  pliable  than  pias- 
saba,  and  can  consequently  be  used  either  alone  or  mixed  with  bristles  in  makino- 
soft,  long-handled  brooms,  Avhich  are  extremely  durable,  and  can  be  sold  at  about  a 
third  the  price  of  ordinary  hair  brooms.  The  use  of  Eittool  fiber  is  said  to  be  spread- 
ing not  only  in  this  country  but  also  on  the  Continent.  During  189.5  Kitiool  fiber 
has  not  been  much  in  demand.  (Cantor  Lectures,  Morris.)  Its  chief  use  in  the 
L'nited  States  is  for  the  manufacture  of  brewer's  brushes. 

""  Specimens. — Field.  Col.  Mus. ;  Mus.  L^  S.  Dept.  Ag.     I'hil.  Com.  Mus. 

Caryota  spp. 

C.  mitis  is  mentioned  by  Savorgnan  as  another  species  found  in  Ceylon,  from  the 
leaves  of  which  a  kind  of  Crin  vegetal  is  manufactured  called  Black  fiber.  Ber- 
nai-din  also  mentions  C.  onusta  from  the  Philippine  Islands,  called  CaVo  Xrgro- 
C.  onusta  is  Arenga  sacliarifera. 

Cascara  (Peru.)     See  Couratari  legalis. 

Cascara  also  means  a  husk,  as,  Cascara  de  coco,  husk  of  the  cocoanut. 

Cassia  auriculata.    Tanner's  Cassia. 

Exogeu.  Leyiiminosa'. 
The  species  of  this  genus  are  more  important  from  the  medical  standpoint  as  pro- 
ducing "  Senna,"  besides  gums,  tans,  and  dyes.  C.  auriculata  is  merely  mentioned  as 
yielding  fiber  in  its  bast.  "  Specimens  of  the  bark  were  sent  to  the  Calcutta  Exhi- 
bition from  Cuddapah,  Madras,  as  a  tanning  material,  but  an  excellent  fiber  was 
prepared  from  a  surplus  of  this  bark  and  made  into  rope.  The  fibrous  property  of 
the  jilaut  does  not  appear  to  have  been  investigated.  The  caterpillar  of  a  large  spe- 
cies of  silkworm  feeds  on  the  leaves  of  this  plant."     (  Watt.) 

Cassytha  melantha.    Co3imon  Scrub  Vine  of  Australia. 

Mentioned  by  Dr.  Guilfoyle  as  a  fiber-producing  species.  These  scrub  vines  some- 
times form  impenetrable  thickets.  The  plant  belongs  to  a  common  genus  of  semi- 
parasitical  leafless,  thread-like  plants.  Their  habit  is  to  twine  around  other  trees, 
with  which  they  come  in  contact,  with  their  wire-like  branches.  They  are  some- 
times called  Dodder  laurels.     C  ./f?J/orJHi'8  is  found  in  India. 

Castilloa  elastica. 

Exogen.     Moraceo'.     A  tree. 
This  species  abounds  in  Mexico  and  Central  America.     It  has  male  and  feuiale 
flowers  alternating  one  with  the  other  on  the  same  branch.     The  male  flowers  have 
12247— i^o.  9. 8 


114  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

several  staraeus  iuserted  iuto  a  bemispheiical  perianth,  consi.sting  of  several  iiuited 
scales.  The  female  flowers  consist  of  numerous  ovaries  iu  a  similar  cup.  The  tree 
contains  a  milky  juice,  yielding  caoutchouc. 

Bast  Fiber.  The  Costa  Rican  exhibit,  W.  C.  E.,  1893,  contained  an  interesting 
collection  of  the  tough,  cloth-like  bast  from  this  tree,  some  of  the  examples  measur- 
ing 10  to  12  feet  in  length  and  15  inches  wide.  The  sheets  of  bast  are  similar  to  the 
Damajagua  bast  from  Peru  and  applicable  to  the  same  uses. 

Specimens:  Phila,  Com.  ]Mus. 

Casuarina  stricta.     The  Droopinct  She  Oak. 

Exogen.     CasKai-inavew. 

These  singular  trees  are  met  with  most  abundantly  iu  tropical  Australia  and  New 
Caledonia,  where,  according  to  Dr.  Bennett,  they  are  called  oaks.  "They  have  very 
much  the  appearance  of  gigantic  horse  tails  (Eqiiinctacew),  being  trees  with  tliread- 
like  jointed  furrowed  pendant  branches.  Their  sombre  appearance  causes  them  to 
be  planted  in  cemeteries,  where  their  branches  give  out  a  mournful  sighing  sound  as 
the  breezes  pass  over  them,  waving  at  the  same  time  tlieir  gloomy  hearse-like 
j)lunies.''  C.  siricta  is  common  on  the  coast  as  well  as  the  inland  tracts  of  South  Aus- 
tralia, Victoria,  Tasmania,  and  New  South  Wales. 

Fibkk. — The  stringy  foiiage  formed  by  the  cylindrical  concrescence  of  the  branch- 
lets  with  the  leaves  can  be  converted  into  an  excellent  pulp  for  packing,  and  even 
printing  paper  and  millboard.  The  mechanical  contrivances  for  preparing  the  pulp 
are  of  particular  ease.     (Ferd.  ton  Mueller). 

('.  subero/ia,  the  Erect  She  Oak,  is  restricted  to  Mctoria  and  New  South  Wales. 
The  foliage  in  its  use  is  .akiu  to  that  of  the  former  species.  Different  Casuarinw  occur 
in  the  other  Australian  colonies,  in  south  Asia  and  the  Pacific  Islands,  but  none  of 
the  species  has  been  employed  before  for  paper  manufacture,  and  consequently  the 
investigations  instituted  in  Victoria  may  bo  found  even  of  value  iu  a  country  so 
anciently  industrial  as  China.     {Ferd.  von  Mueller). 

C.  muricata  is  a  native  of  southern  India,  and  C.  equisetifolia  is  found  iu  the  South 
Sea  Islands.  Tlic  trees  of  tlieso  two  species  are  valuable  for  many  economic  uses, 
but  are  not  particularly  mentioned  as  fibrous. 

Catirina  (Peru).     See  .Uhdea. 

Cat-tail  flag  (s(>e  Tj/pha). 

Cavanillesia  plantanifolia.     Yolandero. 

Exogen.     Leguminosw. 
Found  in  Panama  aud  New  Carthagena.     "The  inner  bark  affords  a  fiber  much 
resembling  Cuba   bast.     It  bleaches   readily   and  makes  a  strong,   white,  opacpie 
paper."     (Spon.) 

Cebu  hemp  (Phil.  Is.).     Musa  texUlis. 
Cecropia  peltata.    Trumpet  Tree. 

Exogen.     Moracew.     Tree,  50  feet. 
Native  name. — Emhauha  or  umhauba. 

Native  of  West  Indies  and  tropical  South  America. 

Fiber. — Produced  from  the  inner  bark  of  the  young  branches;  said  to  be  very 
tough.  Bernardin  says  the  fiber  is  used  iu  Brazil  for  sacks.  In  notes  on  the  State 
of  Para,  W.  C.  E.,  1893,  the  fiber  is  claimed  to  be  used  for  strong  ropes  and  cordage. 

The  Uaupe  Indians,  who  inhabit  the  Rio  Uaupcs,  a  tributary  of  the  Rio  Negro, 
convert  the  hollow  stems  of  this  tree  into  a  very  curious  kind  of  musical  instrument, 
a  species  of  drum,  called  by  them  Amhoohas.  They  select  a  trunk  4  or  5  inches  in 
diameter,  aud  ciit  off  a  piece  about  4  feet  long,  removing  the  partitions  and  render- 
ing the  inside  smooth  by  means  of  fire ;  they  then  close  up  the  lower  end  with  leaves 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  115 

beaten  down  iuto  <a  bard  mass  witb  a  pestle,  and  out  two  boles  toward  tbo  top  end 
so  as  to  form  a  bundle.  Tbese  nide  instruments  are  commonly  used  in  tbe  native 
dances,  tbo  performer,  boldiug  by  tbe  bandle,  lieats  tbe  lower  end  upon  tbe  ground, 
and  moves  bis  feet  in  unison  witb  tbe  sounds  tbus  produced.     (Treas.  Botany.) 

Cedar,  G-igantic  Red,  of  tbe  Pacific  Coast.      Thuja  f/iffantea. 
Ceiba  (Mex.).     See  Bomhax  ceiba. 

Tbe  following  nomenclature  is  given  in  Bernardin's  List  of  5.50  Textiles  Fibers, 
under  tbe  title  "  Duvet  Brun  "  (brown  downs  or  silk  cottons) :  Silk  cotton,  Domin- 
i([ue;  Sole  de  la  Havane,  Kawo-kawo,  Malais;  Siifed-simul,lUud.;  Cotton,  kapok,  S. 
M. ;  (hiana,  Cuba;  Poor,  Tel.;  Pania,  Paniaht,  Mai.  (Eriodeiidron  (oifracluosum). 
Diirct  de  Bimha,  Peru;  {Bomhax  sp.)  Dunt  de  Ceiba,  Cent.  Am.;  Comaca,  Demarani ; 
PitUo)ii,  Cote  d'Afrique,  {Bomhax  ceiha)  Buret  de  Lanero,  Cuba;  patte  de  Ucrre  edre- 
doH  ri'gt'fal,  Antilles;   Balsa,  Cent.  Am.  (Ochroma  lagopus). 

Tbo  Venezuelan  llora  possesses  tbo  following  species :  Bomhax  ceiha,  B.  cumanense, 
B.  sepienatum,  Eriodendron  aufractuosum.  Tbese  are  called  in  common  parlance 
ceiba ;  but  we  prefer,  witb  Andres  Belle,  tbe  form  ceibo,  according  to  tbe  analogy 
witb  otber  species,  as  halso  6  lano,  Ochroma  lagopus.     (Dr.  Ernst.) 

Tbe  Bot.  Mus.  Harv.  Uuiv.  has  fine  "  specimens  of  tbe  fiber  of  C.  Inria,  from  Costa 
Rica. 

Ceiba  pentandra. 

This  is  Eriodendron  anj'ractuosum,  or  "  I'ochote,''  which  see. 

In  Millspaugb's  Contributions  to  tbe  Flora  of  Yucatan  (^Field  Col.  Mns.  Pub., 
No.  4,  Bot.  series),  I  find  C.  pentandra  with  notes  as  follows:  "Pochote,''  "  Pcem," 
Bomhax  pentandrum  Linn.,  /).  ceiha  Linn.,  Eriodendron  anfractnosum  DC.  Plentiful 
throughout  tbe  peninsula.  Under  tbe  general  head  Bomhax,  a  few  lines  above, 
occurs  :  Bomhax  ceiha,  "ceiha,"  Yaxche,  a  tree  80  to  100  feet.  Dr.  Ernst,  who  was  asso- 
ciated with  me  in  making  the  awards  in  group  9,  W.  C.  E.,  1893,  refers  " pochote" 
to  Eriodendron  anfractnosum. 

Celastrus  scandens.     Climbing  Bitter  Sweet. 

Exogen.     Celastracea'.     A  vine. 

Common  in  eastern  United  States,  its  showy  red  berries  making  the  species  par- 
ticularly' marked.  It  has  tbe  habit  of  twining  about  other  woody  plants  and  even- 
tually embedding  itself  in  their  bark  so  deeply  that  tbe  spiral  form  is  preserved  after 
cutting  for  canes,  etc. 

Fiber. — The  bark  yields  a  good  liber,  Avhicb  many  years  ago  was  p^repared  exper- 
imentaMy  bj"-  Mr.  Phippen,  of  .Salem,  and  exhibited  at  tbe  meeting  of  tbe  Essex 
Institute.  , 

Cellulose. 

The  cellular  structure  of  plants  reduced  by  chemical  means  and  purified;  as  an 
examjile,  wood  pulp.  See  Classitication,  p.  25,  group  2,  woody  fibers,  sub  group  d. 
See  also  page  20;  Corn-iiitb  Cellulose,  see  Zea  inags;  Cotton  and  Wood  Cellulose,  see 
under  Artificial  Silk. 

Celmisia  coriacea.     Leather  Plant.     "Tekapu.'' 

Exogen.     Compositw. 

Hills  of  South  Island,  New  Zealand.  Samples  of  the  thick,  leatberj-  leaves  of  this 
species  were  received  from  tbe  Phil.  Int.  Exb.,  1876.  "  Used  for  the  manufacture  of 
garments.''  My  only  authority  for  this  species  is  tbe  exhibition  label  which  accom- 
panied tbe  specimen,  and  notes  made  at  Kew:  "Leaves  resemble  corn  busks,  but 
with  a  silky  gloss.  Tbe  garments  are  made  by  weaving  together  in  longitudinal 
layers." 

*  Specimens. — Mus.  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag. 


116  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

Celosia  crlstata. 

Exogen.     Amara7itace(v.     A  shrub. 

ludia.     Cultivated  as  an  oiuameutiil  plant. 

Fiber. — "It  yields  a  strong,  llexible  ba.st  liber,  so  highly  esteemed  that  rope  made 
of  it  sells  at  five  times  the  price  of  jute  rope."  Contirmation  of  this  fact  is  much 
required,  and  also  samples  of  the  plant  from  which  tlu;  fiber  has  been  extracted.  It 
is  known  in  Bengali  as  LiU-mnrga,  but  Roxburgli  makes  no  unmtion  of  the  fiber; 
indeed,  ■with  the  exception  of  the  notice  in  Spou's  Encycloj^uMlia  quoted  above,  no 
autho)-,  as  far  as  the  writer  can  discover,  alludes  to  the  fiber.     (  Watt.) 

Celtis  australis. 

Exogen.      I'liinicca'.     A  shrub  or  small  tree. 
An  Italian  species  known  by  the  names  Arcidiavolo,  Bagato,  liagolaro,  Buccrata, 
FratjiracoJo,  Legno  da  racchetie,  Loto,  I'erlaro,  ^j^accrt-sassi.     The  bark  yields  a  fiber  for 
cordage.     (Manual  noei)li.) 

Celtis  caucasica.    Nettle  Tree. 

An  Indian  species  supposed  to  be  a  variety  of  the  Euro])eau  nettle  tree,  C.  aus- 
tralis.    Baden  Powell  mentions  that  the  bark  is  made  into  cordage. 

Celtis  orientalis. 

Now  Tremu  orientalis;  Ibrmerly  referred  to  Sjyoitia.  A  very  common  Indian  spe- 
cies of  nettle  tree.  "The  nether  bark  consists  of  numerous  reticulated  fibers,  which 
some  of  the  tribes  of  Assam  convert  into  coarse  textile  fabrics.  0.  philippinensis, 
in  the  Philipi)ines,  and  C.  [now  Trvma^  aspera  and  C.  sinensis,  in  Japan,  also  ali'ord 
useful  fibers.''     (S])on.)     See  Trcma. 

Century  plant  (see  Agave  americana). 

Cerbera  odollam. 

Exogen.     Jpo(tjnavea\ 

A  genus  of  trees  natives  of  trojjical  Asia,  and  said  to  be  A'ery  poisonous,  the  seeds 
being  particularly  so.  "The  inner  shell  of  the  drupe  is  fil)rous,  partly  divided,  when 
ripe,  into  twodivisicms,  and  when  seen  in  the  dried  state  resembles  a  ball  of  string." 
(Treas.  Botany.) 

Ba.st  Fiijki;. — Watt  states  that  fil)er  prepared  from  the  bark  was  sent  by  the  for- 
estry department  of  Madras  to  the  Amsterdam  Exhibition  of  1883. 

Surface  Fiber. — C.  opposilifolia  is  a  Cochin  China  species  held  in  liigh  esteem  in 
pb.irmacy.     From  the  silky  down  of  the  fruit  is  obtained  a  substance  for  wadding. 

Ceroxylon. 

A  species  of  ]iahu  Ibund  in  Peru,  which,  on  the  authority  of  A.  Dorca,  supplies 
nuiterial  lor  cordage  and  coarse  textures.     Known  locally  as  J'atma  dc  la  cvra. 

Chaguar  (Arg-.),     See  Bromelia  serra. 
Chain  creeper  (Braz.).     See  Bauhinia. 
Chain  fern  (U.  S.).     Woodicardia  rad'wans. 
Ch^ndla  (Iiid.).     See  Antiaris. 
Chat  (HiiKl.),=ioot. 
Chanicerops  humilis. 

Eudogen.     I'alnuv.     A  dwarf  palm. 
This  species  abounds  in  Algeria,  and  is  cultivated  in  southern  Europe.     It  is  the 
source  of  the  upholstery  material  imported  into  the  United  States  from  Algeria  under 


DESCRIPTIVE   CATALOGUE.  117 

the  names  African  iiber  and  Crin  vn/i'tal.  It  is  a  species  of  palmetto,  and  is  allied  to 
the  saw  or  scrub  palmetto  of  Florida  and  tiio  Southern  States. 

Structural  Fiber. — Samples  of  tlie  liber  were  received  from  the  Algerian  section, 
W.  C.  E.,  1893,  and  included  the  twisted  ropes  of  raw  fiber,  both  black  and  white, 
as  imported,  with  sijecimens  of  cordage,  vegetable  curled  hair,  etc.  The  leaves  of 
the  plant  are  shredded,  and  the  twisting  into  strands  crinkles  the  fiber  so  that  ic 
forms  a  substitute  for  curled  hair  pro^jer.  1,000  to  2,000  tons  a  year  are  imjiorted 
into  this  tountry,  in  tlie  form  of  "rope,"  worth  not  over  $25  jier  ton,  though  Avlieu 
"jiicked"  or  opened,  the  consumer  pays  double  this  price;  used  as  a  mattrass  fiber. 
See  Serenoa  senudata,  the  allied  American  species. 

*  Sjyecimens. — Field  Col.  ]\Ins. ;  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus. ;  Mus.  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag. 

Chanvre  (Fi'-).     Cannabis  sativ<(. 
Charcoal  tree  (Ind.).     See  Trema  oricntalis. 
Cheirostemon  platanoides. 

A  Mexican  tree  belonging  to  the  Stercidiacew ;  found  also  in  Guatemala  and  trop- 
ical South  America.  Its  ancient  Mexican  name  i.-?  MacpalxovhitlquahuHl,  and  its 
Peruvian  name  Huampo.  "The  fiber,  from  the  bark,  is  used  by  the  Indians  for 
garments''  {A.  Dorca). 

Chenga.  (Afr.).     See  Brac}n/.stc(/ia. 
Chiendent  (Fr.).     See  jEJj^icflwj^cs  macroura. 
Chikti  (Hind.).     Tri u mfetfa  rh o m boidea . 
Chikun  (Beng.).     See  Trema  orientaJis. 
Chilima  (Peru). 

This  is  the  native  name  of  a  species  of  Bomhar,  the  bark  of  which  is  said  by  Dorca 
to  yield  a  very  strong  riljer. 

China  grass  (see  Boehmeria  nivea). 

China  jute  (see  AbutUon  avicenna'). 

Chinbaune  (Burm.).     See  Hibiscus  sahdariffa. 

Chinela  (Peru).     See  (Udadium. 

Ch'ing  Ma.     China  Jute.     Abuiilon  aricenna: 

Chin  pat  (Ind.).     See  Crotalaria  jnncea. 

Chip. 

The  trade  name  of  tliin  strips  or  shavings  of  willow  and  po])lar  used,  when  braided, 
as  millinery  trimmings,  or  material  for  hats. 

Chiquechique  (Venez.).     See  AttaJea  funifera. 
Chitrang  (lud.).     See  Trema  orientalis. 
Chlorogalum  pomeridianum.     Soap  Plant. 

Endogen      Liliacea' 

California,  in  the  valleys  and  foothills  from  the  upper  Sacramento  to  Monterey  and 
Santa  Barl)ara.  The  bulb  is  1  to  4  inches  in  diameter,  covered  with  a  thick  coat  of 
coarse  dark  or  brownish  fibers  resembling  the  coir  of  the  cocoanut.  Kecommended 
for  culture  in  Victoria. 

Structural  Fihki:. — -'These  fibers  are  light,  elastic,  of  good  strength,  and  durable. 
They  have  been  separated  from  the  bulbs,  especially  by  the  Chinese,  and  used  as  hair 


118         USEFUL  FIBER  PLANTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 

to  fill  ciisUions,  mattresses,  etc.,  coustitutiug,  iu  places,  qnite  au  article  of  com- 
merce." (Am.  Jour.  Ph.,  Doc.  18flO.)  Also  uotcd  iu  the  Botany  of  California,  and 
in  Spou's  Encyclopiedia. 

Chom  (Yuc).     See  Bromelia pinguin. 

Chonta  (Peru).     See  Masiinazia. 

Chorda  filum.     See  under  Macrocystis. 

Chorisia  insignis.     Samohu  of  Argentina. 

Exogen.  Sterculiavecv.  Small  tree. 
The  genns  includes  a  number  of  South  American  species,  allied  to  Bomhax  or  the 
silk  cottons.  Like  other  better-known  producers  of  vegetable  silk  or  "downs,'' 
they  also  yield  in  their  bark  a  good  fiber.  Tlie  bast  of  tliis  species  is  employed  in 
Argentina.  It  is  knowu  in  Peru  as  Huimbnquiro  ceiho,  both  the  down  or  surface  fiber 
and  the  bast  being  employed,  the  latter  for  cordage.  See  also  note  on  the  species 
under  Bromflia  scrra. 

Chorisia  speciosa. 

This  Brazilian  species  is  mentioned  in  a  brochure  entitled  Notes  on  Textile  Plants 
of  Brazil,  distributed  at  the  Phil.  Int.  Exh.,  1876.  The  down  or  vegetable  silk  is 
stated  to  be  excellent  for  winter  niattre.sses  and  pillows.  The  tree  is  known  iu  ^xiv- 
z'\\  us  Ariore  de  raina.  The  species  is  mentioned  by  Spou.  "This  i)lant  yields  a 
fiber  of  which  textures  are  made  which  are  so  luiach  like  silk  in  their  luster,  fineness, 
and  pliableness  to  be  scarcely  distinguished  I'rom  it"  (Sarorgiia))).  The  tough  bark 
of  C.  crispi flora  is  .also  used  in  Brazil  for  making  native  cordage. 

Chouca  (Antilles).     See  Agave  mvipara. 
Chrysopogon  gryllus. 

Kndogen.     dramiiiea'.     A  grass. 
Abounds  in  southern  France  and  northern  Italy.     Knowu  in  Italy  as  Barhone  and 
PoUinia.     From  the  fibrous  roots  horse  brushes  and  other  coarse  l)rushes,  mats,  etc., 
are  said  to  be  made;  also  used  for  thatch  material.     Classed  as  a  structural  fiber. 

Chumese  (Iiul.).     See  CrotaJarla  jnneea. 

Chuncu  (Peru).     Caladium  giganteum. 

Churu,  or  Chord  (Braz.).     CourataH. 

Chusan  palm  (lud.).     TracliycariniH  forinnei. 

Chu-ts-ao  (Cliina).     Cannabis  sativa. 

Chrysopsis  graminifolia. 

Exogen.  Comjjositd'.  Perennial  herb. 
A  Southern  species  found  abundantly  in  the  piney  woods,  particularly  in  Wash- 
ington and  Tangipahoa  parishes  of  Louisiana.  Attention  was  called  to  its  value 
as  a  fiber  plant  by  Mr.  J.  T.  Blackwell,  who  wrote  that  the  blade  or  leaf  was  the 
source  of  fiber.  He  cultivated  the  plants  in  his  garden  and  secured  a  growth  of 
three  feet.  Estimated  yield  of  fiber,  150  ])ounds  to  the  acre,  which  would  not  pay 
for  cultivation,  while  the  fiber  itself  is  of  doubtful  value. 

Cibotium  barometz.  )  ^  ^ 

.     ..  }  Tree  Ferns. 
menziesu.  ) 

Syu.     IHcksonia  barometz  and  D.  memiesii, 

A  small  genus  ranging  over  Mexico  and  Central  America,  the  Hawaiian  aud 
Philippine  Islands,  Sumatra,  southern  China,  and  India. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  119 

Surface  Fiber. — "The  base  of  the  leafstalks  is  densely  covered,  with  a  soft  aud 
glossj-  yellowish  wool,  used  for  stuffing  mattresses  aud  pillows,  aud  which,  under 
the  name  of  pnlu,  forms  a  regular  article  of  export  to  California  from  Hawaii.  The 
wool  of  C  barometz,  from  tropical  Asia,  and  of  Dicksoiiia  culcita,  from  the  Atlantic 
islands,  serves  for  similar  purjioses  and  has  also  found  a  limited  employment  in 
surgery  for  stanching  bleeding  from  ulcers  or  wounds.  The  hairs  consist  of  a  single 
series  of  flat  thin-walled  cells  which  break  readily  at  the  joints,  the  cells  being 
shortest  in  C.  chamissoi  and  longest  in  C.  meiiziesii.  C.  glaucuin  is  a  rare  species, 
though  found  in  most  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands.  The  puln,  as  to  gloss  and  curl,  is 
intermediate  between  menzksii  and  chamissoi.     {HiUehrand.) 

Spon  mentions  ('.  harometz,  but  ignores  the  other  species,  or  confounds  the  four  as 
one,  stating  that  each  plant  yields  about  2  to  3  ounces  of  the  fiber,  which  occupies  about 
four  years  in  pvodiietiou.  The  gathering  is  a  very  slow  aud  tedious  operation. 
When  picked  the  fiber  is  wet,  and  has  to  be  laid  out  on  the  rocks  or  on  mats  to  dry. 
In  favorable  Aveather  this  may  l)e  effected  in  a  day  or  two ;  but  in  the  habitat  of  the 
plant  rains  prevail,  so  that  the  ilber  is  often  brought  in  a  wet  state  to  market,  even 
after  several  weeks'  "drying."  "The  application  of  the  liber  is  as  a  substitute  for 
feathers  and  horsehair  for  stuffing  purposes.  The  exports  from  Honolulu  in  1878 
were  212,740  pounds,  of  which  Australia  and  New  Zealand  took  181,070  pounds  and 
the  Pacific  ports  of  the  United  States  31,670  pounds."     (Spon.) 

C.  menziesii  produces  the  best  fiber.  On  Hawaii  this  species,  with  chamissoi  and 
glaucum,  formed  extensive  thickets,  which  have,  however,  been  nearly  cleared  away 
by  ihejiulit  gatherers,  who  sacrifice  whole  trees  to  get  at  the  fiber  without  difficulty. 
The  fallen  trunks  send  out  lateral  shoots,  but  full-grown  trees  are  now  rare.  Native 
names,  Hapui  Hi  and  Heii.  The  ''golden  moss"  of  the  Chinese  is  produced  by 
C.  chamissoi,  glancinn,  and  JHcksonia  culcifa.  In  Salvador  aud  Costa  Rica  the  natives 
make  use  of  tlie  vegetable  wool  of  a  species  of  Cibotium,  common  to  all  Central 
America. 

Cigarette  bast  (see  Lecyiliis  olJaria). 

Cipo  imbe  of  Bernardiu  (Braz.).     8ee  Philodendron. 

Cipo  means  a  tropical  climber,  though  sometimes  root;  frequently  used. 

Civil  (Mex.).     See  Malrai'iscus. 
Clematis  dioica.     Traveler's  Joy. 

Exogen.  Eaniinculacea'.  Climber. 
''Native  of  West  Indies  and  tropicalAmerica.  This  Jamaican  clematis  is  a  climber 
with  teruate  leaves,  greenish-white  flowers,  and  the  numerous  seed  vessels  termi- 
nating in  a  long,  feathery  tail.  A  decoction  of  the  root  in  sea  water  mixed  with 
wiue  is  said  to  act  as  a  powerful  purge  in  hydropic  cases.  Stems  used  as  withes  for 
tying."     (Fawceif.) 

Clematis  triloba. 

India,  mountains  of  the  Deccan  and  West  Konkau.  Watt  recognizes  seven  species 
of  Clematis  in  the  Die.  Ec.  Prod,  of  Ind.  Under  this  species  he  says:  "The  above 
species  of  Clematis  yield  fibers  which  are  regularly  used  for  agricultural  purposes, 
and  although  authors  allude  to  the  medicinal  properties  of  only  one  or  two  siiecies, 
thej-  are  all  more  or  less  used  by  the  natives  of  the  hill  districts." 

Clinogyne  dichotoma  (see  Maranta). 

Coast  Sword  Rush  (Anstr.).     Lepidospcrma  gladiainm. 

Cochlospermum  gossypium.     White  Silk  Cotton  Tree. 

Exogen.     Bixacco.     A  small  tree. 
This  genus  is  represented  in  tropical  India,  Africa,  America,  aud  northern  Aus- 
tralia.    C.  gossyjiium  is  an  Indian  species,  yielding  gum,  oil,  fiber,  and  medicine. 


120  USEFUL    FIBER   PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

Surface  Fibku. — TLi(>.  seeds  possess  a  short  Imt  very  soft  and  elastic  iloss,  from 
wliicli  fact  the  phiiit  has  received  its  specific  name.  This  floss  is  much  too  short  to 
be  of  any  service  as  a  textile,  hut,  Tvith  the  flosses  of  ]loml)a.r  VMlabariciDii,  Erloden- 
dron  anfractuostiin,  and  Calotropis  (jlcjantea,  it  has  heen  classed  as  a  "silk  cottou." 
In  some  parts  of  India  the  floss  of  this  tree  is  collected  and  nsed  ibr  stnffing  pillows, 
for  which  purpose  it  would  seem  Letter  suited  than  tlio  floss  from  I'.omhax  malabar- 
ieitm,  as  it  is  not  so  liable  to  set  matted.  It  might  be  found  serviceable  as  a  gun 
cotton.     (TVaU.) 

Among  South  American  species  yielding  silk  cotton  may  bo  mentioned  ('.  hibis- 
coides,  in  Venezuela  "called  carncstolendas,  i.  e.,  Lent,  the  large  yellow  flowers 
unclosing  about  that  time"  {Ernst).     C.  hisigne  is  a  native  of  Brazil. 

Cochlospermum  tinctorium. 

Native  of  Yorubaland,  west  Africa,  where  it  is  known  as  l'e-n(  or  Itaivaiie.  "  Hark 
makes  good  rope,  largely  used  as  such  by  Yorubas  and  Ilonssas ;  plentiful ;  safficieut 
supply  for  export;  not  cultivated.''     (Kew  Bull.,  Aug.,  ISfU). 

Cocoa,  or  Chocolate  tree.     (See  Thcohroiua  cacao.) 

Cocoaniit  fiber  (see  Cocofi  nncifera). 

Coco  (see  Cocoa  nncifera). 

Coco  de  mer  (Seycbelles).     See  Lodoicea  c<dlipyge. 

Coco  de  mono  (Veucz).     See  LecyihiH. 

Cocos  butyracea. 

Kndogei!.     I'alnuv. 
This  is  a  United  States  of  Columbia  and  Peruvian  species,  chiefly  useful  as  yield- 
ing a  toddy.     Dorca  states  that  a  fiber  is  extracted  from  its  leaves  fit  for  rojies  and 
coarse  textures.     ('.  ohrarea  gives  a  similar  fiber. 

Cocos  crispa. 

A  Cuban  palm,  which  appears  to  liave  been  more  or  less  confounded  with  .icrocomia 
lasiospaiha  by  past  writers  on  West  Indian  fiber-producing  plants.  Snuier  describes 
the  Corosol,  Coyol,  or  Corojo  palm  of  Cuba,  while  Bernardin  mentions  the  Corojo  de 
la  tena,  Cuba,  as  Cocos  nrlspa,  doubtless  a  misprint  for  crisj^a.  Dr.  Ernst  reiers 
Corozo  to  FAwis  melanococca.  In  my  list,  published  in  the  Ann.  Rept.  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag., 
1879,  p.  551,  the  fiber  referred  to  under  the  name  C.  erispa  has  since  been  determined 
as  the  ])r()duct  iii  Aerocom'ui  hislospatha. 

Cocos  datil. 

A  palm  found  in  Argentina  and  particularly  in  Entre  Rios.  According  to  Nieder- 
lein,  the  fiber  is  "nsed  by  the  natives  for  tiie  fabrication  of  baskets,  hats,  etc.,"'  the 
leaves  being  employed  for  this  purpose.  The  Brazilian  palm,  known  in  common 
parlance  as  datil,  is  another  species. 

Cocos  nucifera.     Cocoanut. 

Nat]\  K  Navies. — The  fiber  is  known  to  commerce  as  coir,  kair,  and  cocoa  fiber.  The 
names  of  the  i)lant  are  as  various  as  the  countries  in  which  it  grows.  Among  the  100 
or  more  appellations  that  have  been  used  to  designate  it,  the  following  may  be  given 
as  representative:  In  the  Malay  Archipelago  it  is  called  Anocr ;  l>j(ti  soi,  in  Borneo; 
Kelpo,  etc.,  Java;  Jouze-liindie,  Arab. ;  XarloJ,  Xasil,  etc.,  Beng. ;  Otcri,  New  Guinea; 
Si))io-Kaw(i,  Jap.;  Xadi,  Xali  or  Xari,  Kera,  Sanskrit,  etc.     See  Karet  in  Catalogue. 

There  is  liardly  a  tropical  country  on  the  face  of  the  globe  where  the  cocoa  palm 
docs  not  flourish,  and  it  is  impossible  to  ascertain  its  iiative  country,  though  it  is 
thought  to  be  indigenous  in  some  parts  of  Asia,  perhaps  southern  India.     In  the  Coro- 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE. 


121 


ruaiM]el  and  Malalnir  districts,  aud  in  tlio  adjacent  islands,  it  <irows  in  the  greatest 
luxnriance,  preferring  the  sandy  and  rocky  seashores  to  the  higher  country,  though 
it  is  often  found  some  distance  inland.  It  is  common  in  Africa,  and  abounds  in  Amer- 
ica and  the  West  India  Islands.  Dr.  Parry  found  it  plentiful  on  the  island  of  Santo 
Domingo,  where  it  forms  groves  on  the  sandy  Leaches  at  the  outlet  of  mountain 
streams,  and  bears  fruit  abundantly.  It  is  found  in  southern  Florida,  20,000  trees 
having  been  planted  on  Long,  Lignum-vit;e,  and  Sands  keys  alone,  while  examples 
80  feet  high  and  50  years  old  are  found  at  the  mouth  of  the  Miami  River.  Grows  to 
100  feet.  Fig.  1,  PI.  IV,  is  from  a  pho- 
tograph of  a  tree  about  7  years  old. 
growing  on  Long  Key. 

Its  extensive  geographical  distribu- 
tion is  accounted  for  by  the  lact  that 
the  tree  growing  in  such  close  prox- 
imity to  the  sea  the  fruits  falling  on 
the  beach  are  washed  away  by  the 
waves  and  afterwards  cast  upon  some 
far  distant  shore,  where  they  readily 
vegetate.  It  is  in  this  way  that  the 
coral  islands  in  the  Indian  Ocean  have 
been  covered  with  these  palms. 

Structural  Firkr. — Coir  fiber  ap- 
pears in  the  form  of  large,  stitf,  and 
very  elastic  filaments,  each  individual 
of  which  is  round,  smooth,  very  clean, 
resembling  horsehair.  It  posesscs  a 
remarkable  tenacity  and  curls  easily. 
Its  color  is  a  cinnamon  brown.  These 
filaments  are  bundles  of  fibers,  which, 
when  treated  with  the  alkaline  bath 
aud  ground  in  a  mortar,  arc  with  diffi- 
culty separated  by  the  needles  for  mi- 
croscopic examination. 

The  individual  fibers  arc  short  and 
stilT,  their  walls  very  thick,  notwith- 
standing which  tliis  thickness  does 
not  equal  the  size  of  the  interior  canal. 
The  surface  does  not  appear  smooth; 
it  is  often  sinuous  and  the  profile  ap- 
pears dentated.  The  diameter  is  not 
very  regular.  The  points  terminate 
suddenly  and  are  not  sharp.  The  walls 
appear  broken  in  places  as  if  they  were  pierced  with  fibers,  corresponding  with  the 
fissures  of  the  sections. 

EcoxoMic  CONSIDERATIONS. — The  fiber  of  the  cocoa  i>a]m  is  contained  in  the  husk 
of  the  nut,  fig.  42,  which  is  composed  of  a  mass  of  coir,  as  the  separated  fiber  is  called. 
The  husks  are  removed  by  forcing  the  nuts  npon  sharp  iron  or  wooden  spikes  fixed 
in  the  ground;  one  man  being  able  to  remove  the  husks  from  1,000  nuts  daily.  The 
proper  time  for  cutting  the  fruit  is  in  the  tenth  month,  as  the  fruit  must  not  be 
allowed  to  get  thoroughly  ripe,  for  the  fiber  becomes  coarser  and  more  difficult  to 
.twist,  and  must  remain  longer  in  the  soaking  pits,  which  is  a  disadvantage,  as  the 
fiber  is  rendered  darker.  These  pits  in  some  of  the  islands  are  merelv  holes  in  the 
sand,  and  the  unts  lie  under  the  influence  of  salt  water  a  year,  kept  from  floating 
away  by  large  stones  placed  over  them.  Sometimes  the  nuts  are  soaked  in  fresh- 
water tanks,  and,  as  the  water  is  not  changed,  it  becomes  in  time  very  foul  and 
dark  colored,  which  afiects  the  color  of  the  coir.     After  soaking,  the  fiber  is  readily 


Fig.  41.— ("ocoMnut  trio,  Cape  Florida. 


122 


USEFUL  FIBER  PLANTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


extracted  by  beating.  Fresh  water  is  said  to  weaken  the  fiber,  and,  in  fact,  too  long 
soaking  will  produce  this  result  in  any  event.  The  coir  from  the  islands  of  Kadamat, 
Kelton,  and  Chetlat,  in  the  Laccadives,  is  said  to  be  of  the  best  descrii)tion,  and  the 
manufafture  into  cordage  is  done  entirely  by  women.  After  it  is  taken  from  the  pit 
and  sufficiently  beaten,  the  extraneous  matter  is  separated  from  the  fibrous  portion 
by  rubbing  between  the  hands.  After  it  is  thoroughly  cleaned,  it  is  arranged  into  a 
loose  roving  preparatory  to  being  twisted,  which  is  done  in  a  very  ingenious  manner 
between  the  palms  of  the  hands,  so  that  it  jiroduces  a  yarn  of  two  strands  at  once. 
According  to  the  old,  native  system  of  treatment,  the  nuts  sometimes  remained  in  the 
pits  eighteen  months.  The  best  commercial  coir  of  to-day  is  obtained  by  better  meth- 
ods, and  the  soaking  is  accomplished  in  tanks  of  stone,  brick,  iron,  or  wood,  the 
water  being  warmed  by  steam,  which  shortens  the  duration  of  the  treatment  very 
materially.  "Where  machinery  is  used  (in  the  after  processes),  the  husks,  when 
sufficiently  soaked,  are  passed  through  a  crushing  mill,  which  llattens  and  crushes 
them  ready  for  the  extractor,  or  breaking-down  machine.  In  the  latter  the  libers 
are  completely  disintegrated,  and  are  then  passed  through  a  '  willowing  '  machine,  to 
free  them  from  dust  and  refuse.      It  is  calculated  that  when  treated  in  England 

10,000  husks  will  ])rodnce  45  to  50  cwt.  of 
spinning  liber  and  9  to  13  cwt.  of  brush  fiber. 
In  the  process  of  separating  the  liber,  the  fol- 
lowing commercial  qualities  are  produced: 
The  mat,  or  long  fibers  used  for  spinning  pur- 
poses; the  shorter,  or  more  stubborn  libers 
(bristles),  for  brooms  or  brushes;  the  tow  or 
curled  fiber  for  stufling  cushions,  and  the  dust 
or  refuse  for  gardening  purposes.  When  dyed 
black,  the  tow  has  been  used  as  a  substitute 
for  horsehair.  A  singular  use  was  proposed 
a  short  time  ago  for  cocoanut  dust  or  refuse. 
Taken  before  it  is  quite  dry.  and  subjected  to 
great  pressure.  It  is  capable  of  forming  plates 
of  varying  thickness,  like  millboard,  only 
much  more  britUe.  These  boards,  if  used  as 
backing  for  steel  plates  of  ironclads,  swell  up 
on  Ix'lng  punctured  below  the  water  line  and 
soon  close  the  orilice.  If  really  effective,  such 
plates  could  be  produced  at  a  trilling  cost, 
for  thousands  of  tons  of  cocoanut  refuse  float 
away  annually  down  the  rivers  in  India  and 
elsewhere."  (Dr.  Morris.)  See  also  Corn-pith  Cellulose  for  this  purpose,  under  /ea 
mays. 

Three  large  coast  cocoanuts  will  yield  1  pound  of  coir,  measuring  about  130  feet, 
whereas  10  small  inland  nuts  are  required  for  1  pound,  but  it  will  give  over  200  feet. 
Two  pounds  of  such  yarn,  averaging  from  70  to  75  fathoms,  are  made  up  into  sooties, 
of  which  there  are  11  iu^a  bundle,  averaging  about  a  maund  (28  pounds).  A  Manga- 
lore  candy  (560  pounds)  will  thus  be  the  produce  of  5,600  nuts,  and  should  contain 
20,000  fathoms    120,000  feet)  of  yarn. 

Coir  fiber  is  used  by  the  Spaniards  of  the  South  Seas  instead  of  oakum  for  calking 
their  vessels,  and  it  is  claimed  that  it  will  never  rot.  Coarse  cloth  is  sometimes 
made  from  the  fiber  which  is  used  for  sails.  The  principal  use  of  coir,  however,  in 
the  commercial  world  is  for  cordage  and  matting.  "  The  character  of  coir  has  long 
been  established  in  the  East,  and  is  now  in  Europe,  as  one  of  the  best  materials  for 
cables,  on  account  of  its  lightness  as  well  as  elasticity."  Ships  furnished  with  coir 
cables  have  been  known  to  ride  out  a  storm  in  security  while  the  stronger  made,  but 
less  elastic,  ropes  of  the  other  vessels  snapped  like  pack  thread.  Coir  cables  were 
used  extensively  in  the  Indian  seas  until  chain  cables  were  introduced.    It  is  rougher 


Fig.  42. — Section  of  a  cocoanut.  a,  tbo 
husk  containing  the  fiber;  b,  the  fruit, 
or  edible  portion. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  123 

to  handle  aud  not  so  neat  looking;  as  hemp  rigcing,  bnt  it  is  well  suited  to  running 
rigging  Avhorc  lightness  and  elasticity  arc  desired,  as  for  the  more  lofty  sheets;  it, 
however,  is  too  elastic  for  standing  rigging.  In  vessels  of  600  tons  if  is  generally 
used  for  lower  rigging. 

Tests  of  coir  cordage  by  Dr.  Wright  gave  the  following  results:  JTibisciis  cnnna- 
'  Mnus  broke  with  190  pounds  strain,  coir  broke  with  224  pounds,  but  bowstring 
hemp  {Siuiseriera  zeylauica)  required  a  strain  of  316  pounds  to  break  it.  In  another 
series  of  experiments,  made  at  the  office  of  the  marine  l)oard  of  Calcutta,  plain  coir 
stood  a  strain  of  823  pounds,  when  a  remarkably  fine  specimen  of  European  hemp 
stood  1,967  pounds.  In  this  test  the  coir  stood  Xo.  12  in  strength  and  No.  1  in  elas- 
ticity, stretching  32  inches  against  9i  inches  for  the  hemp.  Unfortunately  the 
length  of  rope  was  not  given,  though  its  size  was  li  inches  in  circumference. 

Economic  uses  of  the  cocoa  palm.— The  cocoa  palm  has  other  uses  than  for 
fiber  which  are  of  sufficient  interest,  in  connection  with  its  textile  uses,  to  briefly 
mention.  The  cocoanuts  are  sometimes  used  for  illuminating  purposes,  to  light 
roads,  aud  an  excellent  charcoal  is  yielded  by  the  burnt  shells.  These  in  their  entire 
state  are  manufactured  into  a  great  variety  of  vessels  for  household  use.  The  tree 
itself  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  small  boats,  frames  for  houses,  rafters,  spear 
handles,  furniture,  and  fancy  articles  of  difi'ereut  kinds.  It  is  exported  under  the 
name  of  porcupine  wood.  "The  Cingalese  split  the  fronds  in  halves  and  plait  the 
leaves  so  nicely  as  to  make  excellent  baskets,  and  they  form  the  usual  covering  of 
their  huts,  as  well  as  the  bungalows  of  the  Europeans."'  These  dried  fronds  also 
furnish  fuel  and  are  used  for  torches,  or  they  are  made  into  brooms  by  tying  the 
midribs  together.  The  leaves  furnish  mats,  baskets,  and  screens,  and  combs  are 
made  of  the  midribs  of  the  leaflets  in  the  Friendly  Isles.  Mats  are  also  made  of  the 
cocoanut  leaf  cut  out  of  the  heart  of  the  tree,  which  are  described  of  fine  ([uality 
and  used  in  the  Laccadive  Islands  as  sails  for  their  boats.  A  downy  fiber  is  also 
taken  from  the  plant  which  is  used  to  stanch  the  blood  in  woiinds  after  the  manner 
of  lint. 

Cocoanut  oil  is  one  of  the  best-known  products  of  the  palm,  especially  as  it  is 
employed  in  the  manufacture  of  stearine  candles.  In  the  East  it  is  employed  as 
lamp  oil,  and  also  for  anointing  the  body.  Fifteen  cocoanuts  produce  about  2 
quarts  of  oil.  The  drink  known  as  toddy,  or  palm  wine,  is  derived  from  the  flower 
spathes  before  they  have  expanded.  It  is  also  distilled  and  produces  an  intoxicating 
liquor,  or  arrack.  It  is  also  made  into  vinegar,  or,  if  it  is  not  allowed  to  ferment, 
may  be  made  to  yield  jaggery,  or  sugar,  which  is  brown  and  coarse. 

The  collection  of  the  Department  contains  a  full  series  of  coir  in  the  various  stages 
of  preparation,  as  the  husk,  the  loose  fiber,  yarn,  rope,  matting,  brushes,  and  coir, 
or  "curled  hair,"  used  for  upholstering.  It  is  much  esteemed  in  India  for  stuffing 
mattresses  and  cushions  for  couches  and  saddles.  Very  little  raw  fiber  is  now 
imported  into  the  United  States.  An  interesting  fiber  specimen  is  a  network  of 
fibers  taken  from  the  jietiole  of  the  leaf.  As  seen  upon  the  tree  at  the  bases  of  the 
young  fronds,  it  is  beautifully  white  and  transparent,  bnt  at  maturity  it  becomes 
tough  and  coarse  and  of  the  same  color  as  coir.  It  may  be  stripped  ofl'  in  large 
pieces,  and  the  fibers  are  so  straight  and  cross  each  other  so  regularly  that  they  are 
used  to  strain  cocoanut  oil  or  palm  wine. 

It  is  doubtful  if  the  production  of  native  coir  fiber  will  ever  become  an  American 
industry,  although  I  am  informed  by  T.  Albee  Smith,  of  Baltimore,  that  machinery 
for  extracting  the  fiber  is  already  available.  The  palms  grow  well  in  southern 
Florida,  aud  while  already  producing  nuts  the  cocoanut  industry  has  assumed  no 
importance,  though  a  single  company  in  Massachusetts,  extracts  the  fiber  from  im- 
ported nuts. 

References. — Probably  the  best  account  of  this  useful  plant,  with  a  treatise  upon 
its  cultivation,  uses  in  the  domestic  and  industrial  economy,  etc.,  will  be  found  in- 
Vol.  II,  Die.  Ec.  Prod.  Ind. 

*  Specimens  can  be  seen  in  the  Mus.  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag. 


124  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

Cocos  urispa. 

I  iuclude  this  species  on  tlie  authority  of  M.  Bernardin.  Two  varieties  of  Corojo 
are  given  in  Beruardiii's  Catalogue,  tlie  "Corojo  dr  la  icna"  from  Cuba  stated  to  1)6 
"Cocos  urispa,"  nw\  tlu^  Corojo,  Corozo,  or  Cocoyal  from  Central  America,  without 
name.     See  C.  crispa. 

Cocotero  (Mex.).     See  Cocoh  nucifera. 

Cocoyal  (Cent.  Am.)-     See  Acrocomia. 

Cocuiza  (Veiiez.).     Furcrcva  (jiganiea. 

Cocuy  (Yeuez.),     See  Agave  americana. 

Coir.     Fiber  of  Cocos  nucifera. 

Cokerite  palm  (Braz.).     See  Maximiliana  regia. 

Colocasia  antiquoruni. 

A  genus  of  Aracew,  allied  to  Caladiim.  The  species  named  is  cultivated  in  most 
tropical  countries  as  a  food  ])lant,  both  its  leaves  and  tubers  being  eaten.  It  fur- 
nishes the  " Poi"  of  the  Sandwich  Islands.  Is  only  interesting  here  from  the  lact 
that  fiber  prepared  from  the  plant  in  Mauritius  was  sent  to  the  Vienna  Exposition 
of  1873,  similar  specimens  being  exhibited  in  the  Kew  Mus. 

Colorado  River  hemp  (TT.  S.).     See  Seshania  macrocarpa. 

Commersonia  fraseri.     Tie  Plant  of  Austealia. 

Exogen.     Sterculiacfa\     A  small  tree. 

A  Victoria  species  known  in  some  sections  as  Blackfellow's  hemp.  It  is  a  tall 
shrub  or  small  tree,  and  abounds  on  the  banks  of  rivers  and  creeks.  The  bark  is 
used  extensively  by  the  settlers  as  a  tying  material.  It  yields  a  line  fiber  suitable 
for  matting  and  cordage,  and  a  good  quality  of  jiaper  could  doubtless  be  made  from  it. 

Bast  Fiki:r. — The  museum  specimen  was  obtained  from  the  Victorian  collection, 
Phil.  Int.  Exh.,  187(»,  and  was  prepared  by  Dr.  Guilfoyle.  The  fiber  is  quite  dark, 
due  probably  to  insufficient  bleaching,  but  is  strong  and  not  very  brittle,  and 
although  the  filaments  are  stitil',  thcyexhibit  under  the  magnifying  glass  a  very 
fibrous  nature,  some  of  them  being  fine  and  lustrous;  is  inferior  to  Hibiscus  fiber.  It 
measures  between  2  and  5  feet  in  length. 

Commersonia  echinata. 

A  sample  of  this  bast  fiber  was  secured  from  the  New  South  Wales  Exhibit,  I*hil. 
Int.  Exh.,  1870,  labeled  "Brown  Kurrijonfj,"  by  which  name  it  is  said  to  be  known 
to  the  colonists.  The  name  has  been  applied  by  other  authorities  to  C.  plaiiiphiiJla. 
"The  fiber  of  C.  echinaia  is  of  a  very  tenacious  nature,  and  is  preferred  to  all  others 
by  the  aborigines  for  making  nets."  The  fiber  is  quite  dark  and  does  not  appear  to 
be  quite  as  strong  as  tliat  from  C.  fraseri. 

Copernicia  cerifera.     Carnauha palm. 

Endooen.     Palnuv.     Height,  40  feet. 

The  genus  includes  six  species-of  palms  inhabiting  tropical  America.  The  Car- 
nauba  or  wax  palm  is  a  Brazilian  species  about  40  feet  high,  with  a  trunk  8  inches 
thick.  *'It  has  been  recommended  for  culture  in  Victoria.  It  resists  drought  to  a 
remarkable  degree  and  thrives  on  a  somewhat  saline  soil."    (Spon.) 

Structural  Fiber. — The  leaves  are  utilized  in  a  variety  of  native  manufactures. 
The  museum  series  includes  the  leaf,  plaited  into  hats,  mats,  etc. ;  the  leaf  reduced 
to  filaments  and  made  into  rope  and  small  cordage;  small  baskets  and  other  brie- 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  125 

a-brac  iiiado  from  dark-brown  i)iassaba-]iko  fibers  probably  Jroiii  the  leaf  spathe,  aud 
other  objects,  includinj^  fence  material  from  the  leaf  stems.  The  leaves  are  also 
used  as  a  thatching  material. 

Otiieu  uses. — The  younjjj  leaves  are  coated  with  a  yellow  wax,  which  is  readily 
collected  by  jarring  or  shaking  aud  used  for  candles.  A  farina  and  a  starch  are  also 
prepared  from  the  bulbous  root,  while  the  rootlets  produce  a  medicine.  The  seeds 
are  a  substitute  for  cofl'ee.  A  beverage  is  also  yielded  by  this  palm,  and  the  young 
branches  are  food  for  cattle  aud  sheep. 

^  Sjjecimeiis. — Complete  economic  series,  ]\Ius.  U.  !>.  Dept.  Ag. 

Coquilla  palm  (Braz.).     Attalea  funlfera. 
Coquito  palm  (Chili).     See  Juhcea. 
Corchorus  spp. 

This  genus  of  TUiacew  numbei's  between  40  and  50  species  of  herbaceous  plants 
that  are  found  in  both  hemispheres,  growing  in  subtropical  and  tropical  climes.  The 
genus  is  particularly  interesting  on  account  of  two  India  species  that  supply  commer- 
cial fibers  to  the  extent  of  milions  of  dollars  annually,  C.  ceqisularis  and  C.  oJitoriits. 
Other  species  indigenous  or  growing  in  India  that  are  mentioned  by  Dr.  Walt  are  C. 
flc/(/aH^H?M-s,  fiber  coarse;  C.anticliorus,  fiber  indifferent;  C.  fascicularis,  fiber  has  been 
employed  for  ropes;  C.  trldcni),  locally  used  for  rough  cordage;  and  C.  trilociilaris, 
said  to  furnish  a  fair  cordage  filler. 

The  only  species  worthy  of  mention  that  are  found  in  the  Western  Ileinisphere  are 
C.  siUquosus,  which  see,  aud  C.  (vstuans,  which Savorgan,  quotiug  Miraglia,  states  "is 
cultivated  in  equatorial  America  on  an  equality  with  fiax  and  hemp  for  its  iine  fiber." 
The  author  does  not  know  that  this  species  is  considered  as  a  fiber  plant;  it  is  not 
found  in  the  United  States.     The  commercial  species  are  described  below. 

Corchorus  capsularis.  )  -^  ^      ,     ,, 

,ri     .  ^  Jute,  Jew  s  Mallow. 

olitoniTS.      j  ' 

Exogens.     Tiliacea'.     Tall  shrubs,  8  to  15  feet. 

Found  wild  or  in  cultivation  throughout  the  hotter  parts  of  India,  in  which  coun- 
try the  two  species  are  supposed  to  be  indigenous.  Cultivated  by  tlie  Malays,  and 
by  the  Chinese  to  a  limited  extent,  and  Lave  been  introduced  into  the  United  States. 
C.  olitoriiis  has  bcL^n  naturalized  in  all  jiarts  of  the  tropics  as  far  north  as  the  shores 
of  the  ^lediterrauean.  It  is  also  grown  in  l'vgyi)t  and  Syria  as  a  pot  herb,  hence  the 
name  Jew's  mallow.  It  should  be  noted,  however,  that  the  commercial  liber  known 
as  China  jute  is  n(jt  jute  at  all,  but  is  derived  from  AhutUon  ariceinw,  a  plant  knov^u  as 
a  common  American  weed.  (See.)  The  commercial  species  of  Corcliorufi  were  intro- 
duced into  the  United  States  b}^  the  Department  of  Agriculture  about  1870,  and  the 
plants  were  found  to  thrive  in  cultivation  all  along  the  line  of  Gulf  States  and  in 
South  Carolina  and  Florida,  though  they  have  not  yet  been  grown  to  a  commercial 
extent.  Passing  by  the  vast  literature  of  the  two  species  as  recorded  in  the  Report 
on  the  (Cultivation  of  Jute  in  Bengal,  187-1,  by  Mr.  Kerr,  in  the  Diet.  Ec.  Prod.  Ind., 
in  the  Kew  Bulletin,  aud  other  British  publications,  the  two  plants  will  only  be 
considered  here  from  an  economic  standpoint,  and  will  be  treated  together  as  supply- 
ing the  jute  of  commerce. 

Jute  doubtless  takes  its  name  irom  the  Sanskrit,  as  the  words  "jhoiit,''  '^jlioi,"  aud 
"Jhat"  are  all  derived  from  tlie  Sanskrit  "jitat,''  meaning  "to  be  entangled."  One 
form  of  the  root  i^jat,  and  from  it  are  produced  Ja<rt  ixndjnta,  both  meaning  '^matted 
hair."'  The  name  "jtite"  was  first  used  by  Dr.  Roxburgh.  The  Bengal  name  of  the 
plant  is  "j)at"  or  "2)aat;"  the  fiber,  ''jute;"  the  cloth,  "  tat  chotec"  ami  "  megiJa." 
The  Malays  call  the  plant  "rami  tsjina,"  aud  the  Chinese  name  is  "oi-moa."  The 
native  names,  however,  are  legion,  almost  half  a  hundred  names  being  recognized  in 
diti'ereut  districts  of  India,  where  the  plants  are  cultivated. 


126 


USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD, 


BoTAXiCAL  coxsiDERATioxs.^rorc/(or»s  capsiilaris  is  an  anuual  plant,  growing 
from  5  to  10  feet  liigli,  with,  a  cylindrical  stalk  as  thick  as  a  man's  finger,  and  seldom 
brandling  except  near  the  top.  The  leaves,  which  are  of  a  light-green  color,  are 
about  4  to  5  inches  long  by  lA  inches  broad  toward  the  base,  but  tapering  upward 
into  a  long  sharp  point  with  edges  cut  into  saw-like  teeth,  the  two  teeth  next  the 
stalk  being  prolonged  into  bristle-like  points.  The  flowers  are  small  and  of  a  whitish- 
yellow  color,  coming  out  in  clusters  of  two  or  three  together  opposite  the  leaves. 
The  seed  pods  are  short  and  globular,  rough  and  wrinkled.  The  second  species,  the 
C.  olifonns,  is  precisely  similar  to  the  last  in  general  appearance,  shape  of  leaves, 
color  of  flower,  and  habits  of  growth.;  but  it  differs  entirely  in  the  formation  of  the 
seed  i)od,  which,  in  this  species,  is  elongated  (about  2  inches  long),  almost  cylin- 
drical, and  about  the  thickness  of  a  ([uill.  See  PI.  V,  fig.  1.  See  also  figs.  43  and  44. 
DiFFKREXT  KIXDS  OF  JfTK. — Hem  C'hunder  Kerr,  in  the  Report  on  the  Cultivation 
of  and  Trade  in  Jute  in  Bengal,  1874,  states  that  among  the  many  varieties  of  jute 
the  most  common  are  known  by  the  names  (a)  TJttar'uja,  {}>)  Ikswal,  (c)  Deai,  (cl)  Deora, 
(e)  Xaraiti'jiuiji,  (/)  Jlakrahadi,  ({/)  Bhntial,  (/i)  K(trim<janj\,  (i)  Mirnanji,  (./)  Jang- 
ipurl.     These  are  described  by  Mr.  Kerr  as  follows: 

{a)  The  first  variety  is  by  far  the  best. 
It  is  called  I'itarhja,  or  northern  Jute,  be- 
cause it  comes  from  the  districts  to  the 
north  of  Serajgungee.  The  districts  are 
Rungpore,  Goalparah  Bogra,  parts  of  My- 
meneing,  Cooch  Behar,  and  Julpigoori. 
This  .into  recommends  itself  to  the  trade  by 
its  possessing  to  tlie  greatest  extent  those 
properties  which  are  essentially  necessary 
in  fiber  intended  for  spinning,  namely, 
length,  color,  and  strength.  It  is  some- 
times, however,  found  to  be  weak,  and  it  is 
never  equal  to  the  Desi  and  Deswal  descrip- 
tions in  softness.  A  sujierior  quality  of  jute 
is  produceil,  chiefly  for  domestic  use,  by  the 
Hajung  and  Koch  tribes  of  hill  people.  It 
comes  into  the  market  so  late  as  November. 
(b)  Next  in  commercial  value  is  the 
Deswal  jute.  It  goes  down  fairly  with  the 
trade  on  account  of  fineness,  softness,  bright 
color,  and  strength.  It  is  stated,  however, 
to  have  deteriorated  to  a  certain  extent 
within  the  last  two  or  three  years  from  the 
inefficient  system  of  drainage  in  the  new 
fields  where  it  is  grown.  The  fiber  has  become  shorter  and  more  rooty,  and  lately 
weaker  also.  Its  name  implies  that  it  is  the  native  jute  of  Serajgungee  and  its 
neighborhood.  Such  of  it  as  is  grown  on  beels  is  called  Bilan.  and  what  is  raised  in 
churs  is  known  by  the  name  of  Charua;  but  in  Calcutta  they  i)ass  under  the  generic 
name  of  Dcswal.  It  first  comes  into  the  market  in  Sravana.  that  is,  about  the  latter 
end  of  July  or  beginning  of  August. 

(c)  The  Desi  jute  is  the  produce  of  Hooghly,  Burdwan,  Jessore,  and  24-Pergun^ 
nahs.  It  is  of  a  long,  fine,  and  soft  fiber.  If  its  defects,  which  are  stated  to  be 
fuzziness  and  bad  color,  were  removed,  it  is  believed  by  men  experienced  in  the 
trade  that  its  market  value  would  be  very  much  improved. 

(d)  The  staple  known  under  the  name  of  Deora  comes  from  Furreedpore  and  Back- 
ergunge.  Its  name  is  due  to  a  village  in  Furreedpore,  where  formerly  there  was  a 
large  mart.  The  village  has  dwindled  down  to  insignificance  now,  but  all  the  prod- 
uce of  the  district,  as  also  of  the  neighboriug  district  of  Backergunge,  is  known  by 
its  name.     The  bulk  of  the  fiber  of  this  class  is  strong,  coarse,  black,  and  rooty,  and 


Fig.  43. — Seed  vessels  of  Corchonis  cai>siil:iris. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE. 


127 


mucli  overspread  with  runners.  This  fiber  is  used  for  tlie  manufacture  of  rope.  Its 
value  would  rise  if  the  dealers  would  refrain  from  pouring  water  on  the  prepared 
hber,  which  they  are  said  to  do  in  order  to  increase  the  weight  of  their  consign- 
ments. Occasionally  small  l)atches  of  this  jute  are  met  with  of  a  very  superior 
quality. 

((')  The  Xaraiiif/aiiji  }nte,  which  is  brought  from  Aralia,  Kurimguuge,  and  other 
jute  centers,  locally  called  Mokams.  of  the  Naraingungo  mart,  is  mostly  the  produce 
of  tlie  district  of  Dacca.  It  is  very  good  for  spinning,  being  strong,  soft,  and  long; 
but  from  some  neglect  in  steeping,  the  liber,  by  the  time  it  reaches  Calcutta,  changes 
its  original  color  into  a  brown  or  foxy  tint,  which  detracts  from  its  value. 

(/)  The  finest  description  of  Dacca  jute  is  the  Bakrahadi  fiber,  which  is  raised  on 
the  churs  of  the  river  Megna.     It  excels  particularly  in  color  and  softness. 

{fj)  The  i>/mfio?  jute  is  also  the  produce  of  the  district  of  Dacca,  and  comes  to  Cal- 
cutta from  Narainguuge.  It  is  grown  on  churs,  and  is  called  Bhatial  because  it  is 
imported  to  Naraiuguuge  from  the  south  or 
tidal  side  (Bhati)  of  that  place.  It  is  very 
coarse,  but  strong,  and  is  to  a  certain  extent 
in  demand  in  the  British  markets  for  the 
manufacture  of  rope. 

(/()  Karimganji,  in  the  Myniensing  district, 
gives  its  name  to  a  very  fine  description  of 
jute  which  is  grown  there.  It  is  usually 
long,  very  strong,  and  of  good  color,  par- 
taking to  some  extent  of  the  nature  of  the 
Naraingunge  of  Decca  jute. 

(j)  The  produce  of  Kungporc,  though 
large,  is  generally  of  medium  quality,  and 
the  worst  kind  of  it  comes  from  Mirgunge, 
on  the  Teesta,  whence  its  name  Mbujanji. 

(j)  The  produce  of  a  portion  of  the  Pubna 
district  is  known  by  the  name  oi  JangipHri, 
so  called  from  a  small  village  of  that  name. 
It  is  of  short  fiber,  weak,  and  of  a  foxy  color, 
most  objectionable  for  spinning. 

HisTOKiCAL. — Jute  has  been  known  and 
cultivated  since  remote  times  in  India,  par- 
ticularly in  the  lower  provinces,  but  its 
employment  as  a  textile  by  the  nations  of 
the  earth  is  an  industry  that  belongs  to  the 
present  century.  It  was  first  recognized 
under  a  separate  head  in  the  custom-house 

records  of  the  Indian  Government  in  1828,  though  the  fiber  had  been  sent  to  the  Euro- 
liean  market  in  trifling  ((uantities  during  the  two  or  three  previous  decades.  In  1793 
the  East  India  Company  sent  to  England  100  tons  of  the  fiber  under  the  name  "pat." 
In  the  warehouse  committee's  report  on  this  shipment  it  was  stated  that  ''some  of 
the  most  eminent  dealers  declare  that  it  is  not  hemp,  but  a  species  of  flax,  superior 
in  quality  to  any  known  to  the  trade."  The  first  exports  as  jute,  in  the  year  named 
above,  amounted  to  but  V6  tons.  In  1850-51  the  total  exports,  including  jute  rope, 
had  reached  30,000  tons,  and  in  1871-72,  310,000  tons.  At  this  time  35  districts  of 
India  were  cultivating  800,000  acres  in  jute,  more  than  one-half  of  this  area  lying  in 
nine  districts  of  northern  Bengal. 

Up  to  this  date  hemp  and  flax  had  been  used  to  bale  the  cotton  crop  of  the  I'nited 
States,  and  jute  as  an  article  of  import  occupied  a  very  small  place.  The  year  1872, 
however,  saw  the  native  fibers  superseded  by  the  India  product,  particularly  in  the 
West,  resulting  in  the  almost  total  destruction  of  the  industries  they  represented. 
As  already  shown,  the  present  imports  of  the  fiber  into  this  country  are  enormous, 


Fki.  44. — 8eed  vessflsof  Corchonis  olitornit. 


128 


USEFUL  FIBER  PLANTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


while  tho  exports  of  raw  fiber  to  all  countries  from  Imlia  amouuted  iu  1894-95  to 
nearly  649,000  tous,  tbo  exports  of  manufactures  also  showing  large  figures.  The 
interest  iu  jute  cultivation  in  this  country  hud  its  heginniug  just  prior  to  the  time 
that  the  fiber  began  to  bo  largely  imported.  Tho  Department  of  Agriculture 
directed  attention  to  the  culture  as  early  as  1869,  and  in  1869-70  procured  from 
Franco  and  India  a  quantity  of  tho  seed  for  distribution.  As  a  result,  hundreds  of 
small  cultural  experiments  were  conducted  in  the  South  from  the  Carolinas  to  Texas, 
and  ample  proof  was  secured  that  the  ])lant  was  well  adapted  to  growth  iu  the 
United  States. 

IjAST  Fiber. — Were  it  not  for  its  fineness,  silkiness,  and  adaptibility  for  spinning, 
with  tho  easy  cultivation  of  the  plant,  jute  Avould  not  to-day  hold  the  position  it 

has  secured  in  the  indus- 
trial economy,  for,  com- 
pared Avith  the  other 
textiles,  it  is  very  infer- 
ior. Several  American 
idants  that  are  classed 
as  weeds  produce  better 
and  stronger  fiber,  but 
their  cultivation  and 
preparat  ion  are  yet  mat- 
ters of  experiment.  One 
defect  of  jute  is  the  diffi- 
culty to  spin  it  into  tho 
higher  numbers.  Its 
durability  is  also  against 
it,  as  the  fiber  can  not 
stand  dampness,  and 
under  the  best  condi- 
tions rapidly  deterior- 
ates. The  bleached  fiber 
also  loses  its  whiteness 
and  in  time  oxidizes  un- 
til it  jiresents  a  dingy, 
yellowish-brown  color. 
Its  strength  is  inferior 
to  most  fibers,  though 
il  is  ;imi>ly  strong  for  the 
coarse  uses  to  which  it 
is  commonly  put,  such 
as  tho  manufacture  of 
guuny  sacks,  cotton  V>ag- 
ging,  etc.,  where  durability  is  of  less  consequence  than  primary  cheapness. 

Samples  of  the  fiber  exposed  for  two  hours  to  steam  at  2  atmospheres,  followed  by 
boiling  in  water  for  three  hours,  and  again  steamed  for  four  hours,  lost  21.39  per 
cent  by  weight,  being  about  three  times  as  great  a  loss  as  that  snfl'ered  by  hemp, 
manila  hemp,  phormium,  or  coir.  A  similar  test  of  jute  with  flax,  hemp,  ramie,  and 
other  fibers  showed  as  great  a  loss,  while  flax  lost  less  than  4  per  cent  and  ramie  a 
small  fraction  under  1  jier  cent. 

Specimens  of  jute  grown  in  this  country  experimentally  have  been  found  for  the 
most  part  superior  to  the  imported  fiber,  and  with  the  more  careful  cultivation  and 
preparation  that  would  be  given  it  would  no  doubt  connuand  a  better  market  prii-o 
an  1  be  employed  in  higher  manufactures. 

I'sKS  or  THK  JuTK  FiUKK. — This  is  employed  in  three  forms  of  manufacture — weav- 
ing into  tine  and  coarse  fabrics,  in  the  making  of  fine  twines  and  cordage,  and  in 


FlCi.  45. — Tlaut  of  jiilc,  Corchorus  caimiilans. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  129 

paper  manufacture;  the  latter  chiefly  froji  "Jute  butts  and  rejections."  In  Europe 
the  tiber  enters  into  a  great  variety  of  fabrics  or  cl-oths,  such  as  curtains  and  uphol- 
stery, carpets,  etc.,  and  even  sheetings  and  imitations  of  silk  fabrics.  It  has  been 
applied  extensively  as  a  substitute  for  hemp.  For  this  purpose  the  fibers  are  ren- 
dered soft  and  flexible  by  being  sjirinkled  with  water  and  oil,  in  the  proportion  of  20 
tons  of  water  and  2^  tons  of  train  oil  to  100  tons  of  jute.  Sprinkled  with  this  the 
jute  is  left  for  twenty-four  to  forty-eight  hours,  when,  after  Iteiug  squeezed  by  roilers 
and  hackled,  the  tibers  become  beautifully  soft  and  minutely  isolated,  and  thereby 
suited  for  a  number  of  purposes  unknown  a  few  years  ago.  Its  i:>erishable  nature  is 
fatal  to  its  obtaining  a  position  much  higher  than  it  has  already  attained,  and  prob- 
ably admixture  of  jute  in  certain  articles,  such  as  sailcloths,  must  sooner  or  later  be 
viewed  as  a  criminal  oflense. 

In  coarser  woven  goods  it  appears  as  webbing,  burlap,  and  cotton-bagging  stufl:'. 
Its  use  in  rine  and  coarse  twines,  binding  twine,  sash  cord,  etc.,  is  very  large,  while 
it  is  also  used  extensively  in  the  smaller  sizes  of  rope.  Because  of  its  fineness  and 
luster,  coupled  with  its  cheapness,  it  is  frequently  used  to  adulterate  the  manufac- 
tures from  better  fibers,  and  on  account  of  the  tendency  to  rapid  deterioration  already 
noted  such  use  is  plainly  fraud.  When  employed  in  hemp  twines  in  this  manner,  it 
is  artificially  given  the  dark  color  of  hemp,  its  natural  color  being  a  light-salmon. 
Binding  twine  is  sometimes  made  of  this  fiber,  colored  to  resemble  hemp,  and  sold 
at  a  good  price  under  a  fancy  trade  name. 

Cultivation. — The  largest  areas  in  India  are  found  in  Bengal,  where  there  is  a  wide 
diversity  in  soil  and  climate,  and  where  high  lands,  low  lands,  recent  alluvial  for- 
mations along  rivers  (known  in  India  as  "churs" — mud  banks  and  islands),  dry 
lands,  humid  lands,  and  even  cleared  bamboo  jungle  have  been  all  more  or  less  culti- 
vated in  jute.  These  lands  are  classified  in  India  under  two  general  heads — first, 
"Suna,"high  land,  which  is  generally  reserved  for  the  cultivation  of  fruit  trees, 
pulses,  vegetables,  tobacco,  sugarcane,  and  early  rice;  and,  second,  "S;ili,"or  the 
lowlands  upon  which  the  late  rice  crop  is  produced. 

The  great  bulk  of  jute  that  comes  from  the  central  and  some  of  the  eastern  districts 
is  grown  on  "churs"  and  on  inferior  soil,  but  in  the  "desi,"or  the  littoral  districts,  a 
larger  proportion  is  grown  inland  than  on  the  banks  of  the  rivers.  In  the  early  days  of 
this  cultivation,  however,  when  jute  was  raised  for  home  consumption  only,  it  used  to 
be  grown  only  on  raised  lauds  close  to  the  grower's  homestead.  On  the  whole,  the 
balance  of  evidence  is  decidedly  in  favor  of  high  or  "siina"  lands  as  the  best  for 
jute,  provided  all  the  other  conditions  necessary  for  its  healthy  growth  be  attaina- 
ble, but  that  lowlands  and  "churs"  are  not  unsuited,  "churs  "  ranking  midday 
between  the  two.     {Hem  Chundcr  Kerr.) 

In  the  district  of  Burdwan  the  plant  is  grown  on  soil  composed  of  rich  clay  and 
sand  in  e(iual  proportions.  In  Mymensiug  it  grows  on  "soil  consisting  of  a  mixture 
of  clay  and  sand,  or  sand  combiued  with  alluvial  deposit;"  in  Backergunge,  "on 
loam  mixed  with  a  little  sand;"  in  Cooch  Behar,  "on  soil  with  a  certain  admixture 
of  sand;"  in  Tipperah,  "on  loamy  and  sandy  soil;"  in  Pubua,  "on  land  which  is 
neither  inundated  nor  dry,  the  soil  being  loam,  i.  e.,  half  clay  and  half  sand."  On 
the  other  hand,  the  jute  plant  appears  not  to  be  averse  to  clayey  soil.  It  grows  in 
the  Barripore  subdivision  of  the  Twenty-Four  Pergnnnahs  "on  matiiil  or  clayey 
soil;"  in  Hooghly,  according  to  the  district  officer  and  Baboo  Joykissen  Mookerjee, 
"on  clayey  soil,"  which,  in  their  opinion,  is  "best  suited  for  jute  cultivation;"  in 
Moorshedabad,  also  on  "clayey  soil,"  which  is  considered  there,  too,  to  be  "best 
adapted  for  jute;"  in  Noakhally,  "on  high  laud,  the  soil  of  which  is  called  attali:i," 
i.  e.,  stiff  and  sticky;  and  in  Cuttack,  "on  high  land,  rich  and  clayey."  It  also 
thrives  in  ferruginous  soil,  as  in  Bhowal,  in  the  district  of'Dacca,  where  jute  is  pretty 
largely  cultivat  d;  and  the  fiber  jiroduced  there  is  considered  to  be  among  the  best 
kinds  which  find  their  Avay  to  the  markets  of  Dacca  and  Naraingunge.  As  a  summary, 
it  may  be  said  that  in  India  rich  alluvial  lands  give  the  best  results,  particularly  in 
12247— No.  9 9 


130  USEFUL    FIHER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

connection  with  a  hot,  damp  atmosphere  and  heavy  rainfall.  A  lijiht,  sandy  soil, 
however,  is  not  suited  to  the  plant.  Dr.  George  Watt  states,  briefly,  that  "a  hot, 
damp  climate,  in  which  there  is  not  too  much  actual  rain,  especially  in  the  early  part 
of  the  season,  is  the  most  advantageous."  The  most  congenial  conditions  are  alter- 
nate sunshine  and  rain,  and  even  excessive  rain  after  the  plant  has  reached  a  height 
of  several  feet  is  not  injurious  if  water  does  not  lodge  at  the  roots.  The  effect  of 
such  lodgment,  or  from  the  plants  standing  in  water,  is  the  growth  of  suckers,  which 
causes  defective  liber.  Drought  stunts  the  plant  and  also  injures  the  fiber.  In  the 
preparation  of  the  soil  much  depends  upon  its  constituents,  heavy  or  clayey  lands 
requiring  more  plowings  than  the  lighter,  sandy,  or  alluvial  lands.  The  soil  is 
thoroughly  broken  up  and  tinely  pulverized,  and  with  heavy  soils  much  is  accom- 
plished in  this  direction  by  the  action  of  the  elements — the  sun  particularly.  The 
preparation  therefore  commences  in  November  or  Decendjer,  some  authorities  say 
September,  though  it  may  be  put  off  until  February  and  March,  ami  even  as  late  as 
June.  Four  to  twelve  plowings  are  usually  given,  and  at  the  last  plowing  all  weeds 
and  other  trash  are  collected,  dried,  and  burned.  Due  •allowance  should  be  made, 
however,  for  the  rude  and  primitive  implements  that  are  called  plows  in  many  parts 
of  India.  The  ground  is  also  harrowed,  or  the  clods  broken  with  a  mattock.  The 
soil  for  early  sown  jute  is  sometimes  laid  with  manure,  but  this  is  never  the  case  with 
the  later  sown  crops.  In  the  Hooghly  district  fresh  earth  and  cow  dung  are  used  for 
manure,  but  the  poor  soils  are  treated  to  oil  cake.  In  localities  where  the  ryot  is  too 
poor  to  own  a  plow  and  cattle  the  land  is  turued  with  a  hoe.  As  a  rule,  the  oftener 
and  more  thoroughly  the  land  is  plowed  the  larger  is  the  yield.  Soil  exhaustion  is 
remedied  by  manuring,  rotation  of  crops,  and  fallows.  The  manures  ordinarily  used 
are  crow  dung,  ashes,  house  8wee])ings.  oil  cake,  the  ashes  of  burnt  jute  roots, 
the  stubble  of  rice  crops.  All  refuse  from  the  plant  should  be  returned  to  the 
soil.  Rotation  of  crops  is  practiced  in  almost  every  district  where  jute  is  exten- 
sively grown,  and  is  well  understood  by  the  cultivators,  though  no  universal 
rules  arc  curent.  The  crops  most  frequently  selected  are  mustard,  rice,  and  pulses. 
Leaving  the  land  fallow  for  two  to  three  years  is  resorted  to  whenever  found 
necessary. 

A  study  of  the  practice  in  India  points  to  the  choice  in  the  United  States  of  alluvial 
lands,  such  as  the  second  bottoms,  so  called,  along  rivers  or  other  bodies  of  water, 
and  even  lowlands  that  are  not  flooded.  The  experience  of  those  who  made  trials 
of  the  culture  in  the  early  seventies  indicates  that  while  the  plants  will  grow  on  a 
great  variety  of  soils,  the  best  results  are  secured  where  there  is  plenty  of  moisture, 
or,  when  tlie  moisture  is  not  found  in  the  soil,  where  it  can  be  applied  artiflcially, 
as  by  irrigation.  In  the  experiments  in  Florida  in  1872  cultivation  in  a  bay  head, 
composed  of  muck  several  feet  deej).  cleared  oft'  and  lined,  i)roduced  stalks  to  the 
height  of  12  feet  or  more.  On  Florida  cotton  lands  which  are  not  uplamls  the  jdant 
did  well.  In  Georgia,  in  the  same  year,  culture  ujmn  "  stitt'  clay  lands"  produced 
stalks  15  feet  tall.  A  South  Carolina  farmer  utilized  rice  lands,  securing  stalks  7  to 
10  feet  tall.  In  Louisiana  several  experiments  were  conducted  the  same  year  upon 
river  lands  1  foot  and  3  feet  above  Gulf  tide.  Notwithstanding  that  the  season  was 
very  dry,  stalks  10  to  13  feet  tall  were  produced,  and  the  experiment  was  considered 
in  every  way  a  success.  In  North  Carolina  moist  bottom  lands  were  chosen  with 
good  results. 

The  following,  from  Felix  Fremerey,  gives  a  practice  that  has  produced  good 
results  near  Galveston,  Tex. : 

"  In  February  the  soil  is  plowed  to  a  depth  of  7  inches  and  exposed  to  the  influences 
of  sun  and  air.  By  the  middle  of  April,  when  the  soil  has  gotten  fairly  warm,  and 
by  no  means  before,  it  is  harrowed  twice  in  order  to  thoroughly  pulverize  it.  Fur- 
rows at  a  distance  of  8  inches  are  drawn  by  means  of  a  drill;  they  should  l)e  about 
2\  to  3  inches  deep,  and  cotton-seed  meal  at  the  rate  of  a  quarter  to  half  a  ton  per 
acre  is  thrown  in  them.  The  seeds  are  dro]>ped  in  these  furrows  at  the  rate  of  15  to 
16  pounds  per  acre  and  then  covered  with  earth  in  any  convenient  manner.    At  this 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  131 

time  of  the  year  the  soil  contiiiDS  much  moisture,  which,  comhined  with  the  atmos- 
pheric warmth,  brings  the  seeds  to  germiuatiou  in  a  few  days;  the  young  plants  will 
appear  about  the  fourth  or  tilth  day  after  sowing,  when  they  will  rapidly  advance 
in  growing,  requiring  no  care  whatever.  As  long  as  there  is  suthcient  moisture  in 
the  soil  the  i>lant  should  be  let  alone,  but  as  soon  as  the  ground  l>egins  to  be  dry 
irrigation  should  be  resorted  to.  In  order  to  insure  a  most  regular  and  efi'ective 
soaking  of  the  soil,  I  would  advise  to  draw  furrows  in  both  directions  about  4 
inches  wide,  and  as  deep,  at  regular  distances  of  10  or  12  feet.  If  the  soil  is  natu- 
rally rirh  no  fertilizing  in  connection  with  irrigation  is  required;  in  the  case,  how- 
ever, of  the  soil  being  poor,  or  humus  being  insufliciently  represented  in  it,  addi- 
tional fertilizing  should  be  given,  and  for  this  purpose  I  would  advise  to  put  in 
cotton-seed  meal,  mixed  with  water  a  few  days  before  its  use;  the  meal  will  rot  and 
the  irrigation  water  will  carry  it  where  it  As'ill  become  available  for  the  young  plants. 
A  jute  plantation  must  be  kept  moist,  avoiding  an  excess  of  irrigation  in  order  to 
keep  the  ground  as  far  as  possible  in  a  temperate  warmth.  If  the  plant  has  attained 
the  age  of  four  weeks  its  rank  growth  will  prevent  the  sunbeams  from  penetrating 
to  the  soil,  so  it  will  for  a  long  time  preserve  the  needed  moisture  and  consequently 
keep  the  soil  soft  and  mellow,  allowing  the  roots  to  absorb  the  needed  chemical  con- 
stituents, and  permitting  organic  and  mineral  plant  food  to  decompose  so  as  to  render 
them  lit  to  be  drunk  by  the  plants.  In  case  of  broadcast  sowing,  22  to  2.5  pounds  of 
seed  should  be  used,  waiting  if  possible  until  after  a  rain;  or  if  natural  precipitation 
is  lacking,  after  a  soaking  of  the  soil  by  irrig.ation.  The  manure  in  this  case  should 
be  spread  as  uniformly  as  possible  before  harrowing,  and  after  sowing  the  soil 
should  be  smoothed  by  a  common  held  roller  in  order  to  press  the  seeds  in  the 
ground,  granting  them  in  this  way  every  chance  of  germination." 

The  quantity  of  seed  sown  per  acre  varies  greatly  in  the  different  districts  of  Ben- 
gal, ranging  from  1  seer  per  bega  in  Hooghly  to  6\  seers  in  Burdwan.  A  seer  is  I 
pound  13  ounces.  This  would  give  in  English  equivalents  5i  pounds  to  llf  pounds 
per  acre.  Twelve  to  15  pounds  to  the  acre  are  generally  accepted  as  the  average, 
though  Spon  states  that  22  to  28  pounds  are  required.  The  yield  of  seed  per  acre  in 
India  is  about  i^  maunds,  or  nearly  400  pounds.  The  season  for  putting  the  seed 
into  the  ground  extends  from  February  to  June,  though  March  and  April  are  the 
months  usually  selected.  As  in  the  case  of  plowing,  so  in  the  period  of  sowing,  there 
are  marked  difi'ereuces;  but  the  mode  of  sowing  is  with  one  exception  alike  every- 
where. The  seeds  are  sown  broadcast  on  a  clear,  sunny  day,  and  covered  with  a 
tbin  crust  of  earth,  either  by  the  hand  or  by  a  '"binda,"  or  harrow,  or  a  "moi,"  or 
ladder,  or,  as  in  Bhaugulpore  and  Julpigoree,  by  beams  of  wood  drawn  over  the 
field  by  oxen.  Little  or  no  after  cultivation  is  given,  and  no  care  further  than  to 
thin  out  the  weaker  plants  where  a  field  is  overcrowded.  Ordinarily,  the  space  left 
between  plants  is  6  inches,  though  in  some  localities  more  space  is  left,  sometimes  8 
to  10  inches.  The  plants  mature  in  about  three  months,  so  that  the  harvest  of  a  crop 
sown  in  March  or  April  will  come  in  June  and  July,  the  May  and  June  sowings 
maturing  in  September  and  October. 

Extraction  of  the  Fihek. — Machinery  has  never  been  used  for  this  purpose  in 
India,  and  the  fiber  is  separated  from  the  stalks  l>y  retting  or  steeping  for  a  week  or 
more  in  water.  In  Mr.  Kerr's  report  it  is  stated  that  the  almost  universal  practice 
is  to  ret  in  stagnant  water,  '•  especially  such  as  contains  a  large  proportion  of  decom- 
posing vegetation,"  which  expedites  the  retting  process.  It  is  stated,  further,  that 
the  ryots  go  down  into  the  pools  and,  standing  waist  deep,  thrash  the  water  with 
haudfuls  of  the  retted  stalks  to  facilitate  the  separation  of  the  fiber.  In  referring 
to  the  Iiulia  practice  the  author  does  not  recommend  it,  as  few  American  farm 
laborers  North  or  South  could  be  found  who  would  adopt  it  any  more  than  Euro- 
pean laborers  will  pull  flax  by  hand  after  becoming  residents  of  the  United  States, 
if  they  can  avoid  it.  Plainly,  then,  successful  jute  culture  in  the  United  States 
can  only  be  brought  about  by  the  use  of  machinery  for  extracting  the  fiber.  See 
Appendix  A. 


132 


USEFUL  FIBER  PLANTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


But  the  maclaine  alone  does  not  prepare  the  fiber  in  marketable  form.  The  decor- 
ticated ribbons  have  j-et  to  be  retted  to  remove  the  gums,  wood,  and  other  waste 
matters,  and  give  a  sjiinnable  product.  The  best  combined  process  so  far  available 
is  to  strip  the  stalks  l)y  machine  and  ret  the  liber  in  tanks  of  water.  Mr.  Fremerey, 
who  has  had  a  large  experience  in  this  work,  recommends  the  use  of  wooden  vats 
filled  with  water  and  kept  as  near  a  temperature  of  95-  to  100-'  F.  as  possible; 
or  holes  may  be  dug  in  the  ground,  as  for  flax  retting,  measuring,  say,  10  feet  long 
hy  4  wide  and  i  feet  deep.  The  stripped  ribbons  are  tied  loosely  in  Inindles  of  about 
50  pounds,  for  ease  in  handling,  and  placed  in  the  vats  or  pools  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  insure  their  being  completely  submerged  until  the  dissolution  of  the  gums  and 
waste  matters  has  been  accomplished.  In  the  absence  of  the  vats  or  pools,  the  India 
practice  of  retting  in  pools  or  waterways  must  be  Ibllowed,  though  it  is  not  essential 
that  the  farmer  shall  follow  the  Indian  ryofs  example,  by  taking  a  warm  bath  in 
water  fouled  by  decomposing  vegetable  matters  almost  to  the  point  of  putrification. 

Yield,  and  value  ov  the  crop. — Warden,  in  his  work  on  the  linen  trade,  1867, 
places  the  yield  of  jute  fiber  per  acre  in  India  at  400  to  700  pounds.  George  Watt 
states  in  the  report  of  the  revenue  and  agricultural  department  of  India  (1888-89) 
that  an  average  crop  of  fiber  is  15  maunds,  though  the  range  is  from  3  to  36  maunds 
per  acre — a  maund  is  87f  pounds.  He  also  cites  the  exi^eriments  performed  at  the 
Saidapet  farm  in  Madras,  where  the  yield  was  599  pounds  of  fiber  if  cut  close  to  the 
ground,  and  703  pounds  when  pulled,  but  adds  that  is  less  than  half  of  the  average 
yield  in  Bengal.  Undoubtedly  the  American  yield,  on  proper  soil,  will  be  consider- 
ably higher  then  the  yield  in  India  and  it  would  be  perfectly  safe,  tlien,  to  count 
upon  crops  of  3,000  pounds  per  acre,  since  this  yield  is  exceeded  in  India  under  the 
best  conditions  of  growth. 

Regarding  the  value  of  the  crop,  a  perusal  of  the  past  literature  of  the  subject 
published  in  this  country  reveals  promises  of  large  remuneration  to  those  who  will 
embark  in  the  industry.  Tables  showing  cost  of  production  and  profits  of  culture 
have  appeared  that,  however  honestly  they  may  have  been  stated  at  the  time  they 
were  prepared,  are  now  misleading,  for  the  reason  that  the  prices  of  libers  of  all 
kinds  were  never  lower  than  at  the  present  time  (1896). 

The  following  table  showing  the  values  of  India  jute  on  December  31,  for  three 
years,  from  monthly  statements  of  H.  H.  Crocker  &  Co.,  New  York  City,  January  1, 
1896,  is  interesting : 


Tear. 

Jute  fiber. 

Butts  anil  rejections. 

Spot.       1  Shipment. 

Spot. 

Shipment. 

1893 

Cents. 

2i  fi  3i 
2ia3i 

Cents. 
3J®4i 
2  ®3i 
2JS3g 

Cents. 

Cents. 
L7®2J 

1S94 

1895 

The  Report  on  the  Foreign  Commerce  and  Navigation  of  the  United  States  for 
the  year  ending  June  30,  1895,  shows  that  the  liber  was  imported  in  the  following 
quantities : 


Tear. 

Jute  liber. 

Butts  and  rejections. 

Tons. 

Value. 

Tons.             Value. 

1894 

18,154 

41,  787 

$935,  537 
1,573,690 

31, 845              $780, 821 

1895 

(58,  885            1, 181,  439 

Total 

59,941           2,509,227 

100,730  i          1,962.260 

These  figures  show  that  over  100,000  tons  of  the  cheaper  fiber  (selling  at  an  average 
of  less  than  1^  cents  per  pound)  are  used  in  this  country  annually,  against  about 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  133 

60,000  tons  of  the  fiber,  bringiDg  at  highest  market  prices  3|  cents  a  iioimd.  It  is 
extremely  doubtful  if  the  demand  for  cheap  jute  could  be  met  by  the  Southern  farm- 
ers at  present  prices,  even  if  the  cotton  crop  should  continue  to  be  baled  with  jute 
bagging,  and  the  new  inventions  for  compressed  bales  covered  vrith  iron  suggest  a 
contingency  worth  considering.  The  Southern  jute  planter,  then,  could  only  endeavor 
to  till  the  demand  for  the  higher-priced  fiber  at  the  best  prices  ho  would  be  able  to 
realize  in  competition  with  the  Indian  product.  That  he  would  be  able  to  secure  the 
full  price  of  the  foreign  commodity,  judging  from  samples  of  American  jute  I  have 
examined,  there  is  little  doubt;  and  were  he  to  grow  a  superior  product,  which  he 
would  be  able  to  do  with  better  practices  in  culture  than  are  followed  in  India,  he 
can  fill  a  limited  demand  for  fiber  at  higher  jirices  than  the  Indian  jiroduct,  for  use 
in  superior  grades  of  jute  manufactures.  In  time,  special  uses  in  manufacture  might 
be  created  that  would  l>e  filled  exclusively  by  American  jute,  but  this  can  not  T)e 
assured. 

*"  Specimfus,  in  series,  Mus.  U.  Dept.  Ag. 

Corchoriis  siliquosiis. 

This  small  shrub  is  a  well-known  tropical  American  species,  said  to  be  indigenous 
in  the  West  Indies  and  southward.  It  is  a  herbaceous  ^ilant  only  2  or  3  feet  liigh, 
its  leaves  differing  from  those  of  the  two  commercial  species  '•  in  not  having  bristles 
or  the  two  bottom  teeth,  and  there  is  nsuallj^  a  line  of  minute  hairs  along  the  stem." 
It  is  not  regarded  for  its  fiber,  its  only  economic  uses  being  the  making  of  Itesonis  by 
the  negroes,  while  the  inhabitants  of  Panama  employ  the  leaves  in  an  infusion  which 
is  a  substitute  for  ten. 

Cord  grass.  Fresh  water  (see  S2)aHina). 
Cordia  cylindristachya.      Black  Sage. 

This  genus  of  Jiorraginacea'  contains  almost  two  hundred  species  of  plants  fimnd 
in  tropical  and  subtropical  regions  of  the  world.  They  are  trees  or  sbrubs ;  the  fruits 
of  some  species  are  eaten,  and  also  used  in  pharmacy,  and  some  of  them  are  valued 
as  timber  trees. 

C.  cyllndnstachya  is  a  Trinidad  species,  said  to  be  "  a  common  wayside  weed,  the 
fiber  of  which  is  seldom  seen  except  in  museums  and  at  exhiljitions"'  {Hart).  Its 
fiber  is  fit  for  coarse  forms  of  cordage.  Samples  of  the  fiber  of  C.  macroplujlla  (the 
Maujack),  of  C.  gerascatiihus  (the  Spanish  eliu),  and  of  C.  sihesfciia  all  tropical 
American  species,  were  received  from  the  Smithsonian  Institution  in  1869,  without 
data.  A  good  ^'specimen  of  C.  colococca  appears  in  the  Herli.  Col.  Univ.  X.  Y., 
which  shows  that  it  is  unimportant  economically.  , 

Cordia  myxa. 

An  Indian  species  (western,  central,  and  south  India).  "Wild  in  the  Himalayas, 
cultivated  on  the  plains. 

FiKER. — The  bark  is  made  into  ropes,  and  the  fiber  is  used  for  caulking  boats; 
fuses  are  also  made  from  it.  "  From  the  inner  bark  is  obtained  a  fiber,  from  which 
the  coiled  match  of  the  native  firearms  is  made''  (James).  • 

My  notes  on  this  species,  in  Ann.  Rept.  Dept.  Ag.,  1879,  are  as  follows:  Cordia 
(tntjiisiifoHa,  called  by  the  natives  of  Mysore  iiarwuli,  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
lope.  The  bark  is  extracted  in  ril)bon-like  layers,  and  then  twisted  into  cordage. 
It  is  possible  some  of  the  species  might  yield  a  useful  fiber  for  textile  purposes, 
though  the  examples  in  the  museum  are  very  inferior.  In  its  lace-liark  appearance 
the  bast  resembles  Sterciilia  :  it  is  white  in  color,  soft,  and  of  inferior  tenacity. 

*  Sjyeehnens. — Mus.  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag. 

Cordia  rothii. 

The  C.  aiigiixtifolia  of  Spon.  A  small  tree  of  northwest  and  central  and  south  India. 
The  liber  or  inner  1)ark  yields  a  coarse,  .ijray  T)ast  fiber.  Avhich  is  used  bv  the  natives 


134  USEFUL    FIBER    PLA>?TS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

ibr  cordage.  It  is  a  small  tree,  12  to  15  feet,  found  iu  Mysore,  Bombay,  aud  the 
Deccau.  A  fiber  prepared  from  the  bark  is  made  into  ropes,  used  in  Malabar  for 
dragging  timber  from  the  forests.  It  is  very  strong,  and  sami)le8  are  said  to  have 
supported  more  than  600  pounds.  C.  latifoUa  aftords  similar  fiber;  used  for  rope, 
coarse  cloth,  twine,  and  netting. 

Cordyline  australis.     Foestee's  Pal:\i  Lily. 

This  genus  of  erect-stemmed,  8hrubl)y,  palm-like  Liliaccw  are  found  iu  tropical 
Africa,  in  Madagascar  aud  tlie  Mascarene  Islands,  in  the  Malayan  Archipelago  and 
Australia. 

Gnilfoyle  enumerates  nine  species  in  his  Australasian  list  from  which  he  has 
extracted  fiber,  as  follows:  C.  auatraUs,  ('.  aiastraJis  var.  lineiita,  C.  hauJcHii,  C  haiieri, 
C.  cookii,  C.  indinsa,  C.  strUta,  C.  termhmlis,  and  ('.  reitchii. 

The  most  common  in  the  botanical  and  other  gardens  of  Melbourne  is  '"Forster's 
Palm  Lily"  (C.  australis),  one  of  the  New  Zealand  species.  Under  favorable  cir- 
cumstances it  grows  to  a  height  of  30  to  10  feet,  and  the  leaves  afford  a  large  per- 
centage of  excellent,  strong  fiber.  With  proper  attention  this  plant  will  yield  a 
good  crop  of  leafage  iu  its  fourth  or  fifth  year;  and,  as  it  will  grow  vigorously  in 
laud  subject  to  partial  inundation,  it  can  be  utilized  in  places  otlierwise  compara- 
tively useless.  It  seeds  freely,  and  can  therefore  be  extensively  propagated,  so  that 
a  young  plantation  maybe  always  coming  on  to  supersede  the  old  one  when  the 
latter  becomes  unprofitable.  {(inUfoyle.)  Fig.  1,  PI.  VI,  shows  this  species.  From 
a  small  plant  growing  in  the  United  States  Botanical  Garden. 

Cordyline  banksii. 

C.  pumila  (error  for  jjumilio)  of  my  rejjort,  in  Ann.  Rept.  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag.,  1879, 
this  name  having  been  attached  to  the  label  accompanying  the  specimen  of  fiber 
obtained  from  the  Phil.  Int.  Exh.,  187ti.  Habitat:  New  Zealand.  The  fiber  from  tliis 
plant  is  another  of  l>r.  Guilfoyle's  preparations.  The  native  name  is  Ti-raiiriki. 
"The  leaves  of  this  interesting  species  of  Curdyliiie  grow  to  a  great  length  and  yield 
an  abundance  of  fiber  of  long  staple,  suitable  for  ropes,  mats,''  etc.  It  is  also  con- 
vertible into  a  good  quality  of  paper.  The  fiber  is  from  2i  to  3  feet  in  length,  straight, 
white,  and  glossy,  but  very  stiff,  resembling  fiber  of  Yucca  or  Agave,  and  seems' to 
have  been  extracted  in  coarse  bundles  <>f  filaments,  which  iiuist  be  hackled  to  be 
reduced  to  anything  like  fineness.  It  is  fully  as  strong  as  Yucca  fiber,  and  would 
make  excellent  rope  of  great  tenacity. 

C.  haiiksii,  Sir  Joseph  Banks's  Palm  Lily,  attains  a  height  of  about  10  feet,  aud 
throws  out  leaves  of  3  or  4  feet  in  length.  The  fiber  is  long  in  stajtle  and  of  great 
stwngth.  Like  the  first-named  si)ecies,  the  seeds  are  produced  iu  great  abundance, 
and,  especially  on  irrigated  land,  it  will  grow  riipidly  in  this  colony,  as  under  these 
conditions  two  or  even  three  strippings  of  the  outer  leaves  might  be  made  in  a  year. 
(GHilfotjle.) 

*  Specimens. — Mus.  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag. 

Cordyline  indivisa.     The  Tall  Palm  Lily. 

Fiber  and  tuw  of  this  sjjecies  were  also  received  from  the  Victorian  collection,  Phil. 
Int.  Exh.,  1876,  prepared  by  Dr.  Gnilfoyle.  They  are  not  as  fine  as  the  preceding, 
however,  though  possessing  considerable  strength.  A  Aery  rudely  manufactured 
rope  from  the  last-named  species  accompanies  the  collection.  ■  This  fiber,  however, 
is  darker  colored,  and  jiossesses  little  of  the  beauty  of  the  preceding  example,  which 
has  been  carefully  prepared.  Neither  Royle  nor  Vctillart  makes  mention  of  this  fiber, 
though  it  is  named  iu  Bernardin's  Catalogue. 

The  leaves  attain  a  length  of  4  feet,  and  a  breadth  of  4  to  5  inches,  aud  contain  an 
abundance  of  iiber,  which  diverges  from  the  center  to  the  edge  and  top  of  the  leaf. 
It  is  therefore  shorter  than  the  leaf,  aud  not  of  the  same  strength  throughout;  but 
it  is  prepared  Avith  greater  care  than  the  New  Zealand  flax  H'hormium  tenax),  and 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  135 

is  better  for  cordage  purposes,  as  it  does  not  eontnict  in  water.  Tlic  n.itives  use  it 
iu  the  luauuCactnre  of  rough  mats,  employed  as  a  eape  to  keep  off  the  raiu,  it  beiug 
more  durable  than  riionniinn  fiber.  Though  the  fiber  is  (^oarse,  it  seems  well  adapted 
for  ropes  and  jiaper  making.     (8pon.) 

C.  ternthialis  is  a  Hawaiian  and  Asiatic  species  (see  Draavtia),  and  ('.  rcficxa.  and  C. 
fragfans  are  African  species.  (\  nutans  is  found  in  China,  India,  and  .South  8ea 
Islands.  Bernardin  records  ('.  Itelironia  from  .Jamaica.  According  to  the  Official 
Guide  Kew  Mus.,  garments  have  been  made  from  species  of  Cordyline  in  New  Zea- 
land and  colored  with  native  dyes. 

*  Sjiecimens. — C.  indirisa,  Mus.  T".  S.  Dept.  Ag. 

Cork-"wood  Tree,     (khroma  l(((jo2)us. 

Corn.     (Maize.) 

Various  fibers  from  leaves  and  husks  of  corn,  and  cellulose  from  cornstalks.  See 
Zea  mails. 

Coronilla  emerus. 

Exogen.     Lc<iitniinos(i\     A  bush,  5  feet. 

A  Mediterranean  ])lant  sometimes  cultivated  in  gardens  of  southern  Europe  and 
commonly  known  as  the  Scorpion  senna.  The  leaves  yield  a  dye  and  have  medicinal 
properties. 

B.4ST  FiBEK. — Savorguan  mentions  this  species  as  one  of  the  plants  that  has  been 
given  the  name  (Hnestra,  which  is  apjilied  to  several  distinct  species  of  plants  yield- 
ing fiber  and  particularly  to  Spartinm.  It  is  the  (Hnestra  di  hosco,  and  is  of  little 
value  as  a  textile. 

Corosal  (Cent.  Aui.).     See  note  Jroni  S(|uier  uuder  Acrocomia. 

Corozo  (see  Cocos  crispa). 

May  be  the  same  as  Corojo  (Cuba).  See  Acrocomia  lasiospatha.  In  ^'enezuela 
Corozo  is  Ehi'is  melanococca.  "Corozo  is  a  collective  name  for  several  species  of  palms 
with  fruits  having  a  hard  kernel"  {Dr.  Ernst). 

Cortega  (Panama).     See  Apeiha. 

Corteza  (Sp.)  =  bark. 

Corylus  californica.     Hazelnut  Trees. 

The  hazels  are  too  well  known  to  need  description  here.  They  are  small  trees  or 
large  shrubs.  "The  usual  form  of  the  hazel,  iu  its  wild  state,  is  a  straggling  bush 
consisting  of  a  number  of  long,  flexil)le  stems  from  the  same  root'  (Treas.  Botany). 

Woody  Fihek. — "The  young  flexible  twigo  of  the  California  hazelnut  (C.  ros- 
trata  var.  californica)  are  almost  in  as  great  demand  by  the  Indians  of  California 
and  Oregon  as  the  branches  ofSaH.r  scssilifoUa;  these  two  plants  making  up  most  of  the 
warp  of  their  basket  work.  Hazelnut  twigs  are  also  much  used  iu  binding  fish  dams" 
(Hr.  r.  Harard). 

Corypha  gebanga.     Gebano  Palm. 

Endogen.     Palma-. 
A  Javanese  species  of  palm,  from  the  trunk  of  which  a  kintl  of  sago  is  ol)tained. 
The  Kew  Mus.  exhibits  a  kadu,  or  sleeping  mat,  made  from  the  leaves  on  the  island  of 
Ceram ;  also  a  hat  made  from  the  leaves  in  Java,  and  strips  of  the  unexpanded  leaves 
used  in  Borneo  for  sewing.     The  leaves  are  also  plaited  into  baskets. 

Corypha  umbraculifera.     Talipot  Palm. 

Native  of  Ceylon  and  Malabar  coast.  Straight  cylindrical  trunk,  marked  by  rings 
and  surmounted  by  a  crown  of  gigantic  fan-like  leaves;  height,  60  to  70  feet.  See 
fig.  1,  PI.  IX. 


136         USEFUL  FIBER  PLANTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 

Structi  r.AL  FiBEU. — Tlie  leaves  are  made  into  faus,  mats,  and  umbrellas,  and  are 
used  for  writing  ou.  They  are  also  largely  employed  for  tliatcliing.  Roxburgh 
remarks  that  the  leaves  "are  used  to  tie  the  rafters"  of  native  houses,  as  they  are 
"said  to  be  stroug  and  durable.''  It  seems  probable  that  after  removing  the  edible 
pulp  from  the  iuterior  of  the  stem  the  long  fibrovascular  cords  might  be  used  as  a 
substitute  for  kittul,  similar  to  the  fibers  extracted  from  the  stem  of  Cnryota  wens. 
These  fil)ers  are  reported  to  be  softer  and  more  pliable  than  those  found  at  the  bases 
of  the  leaves.     {Watt.) 

Specimens  of  the  fiber  obtained  from  the  t'eylon  exhibit,  AV.  V.  E.,  1893.  Princi- 
pally used  as  a  thatch  or  covering  for  tea  houses.  In  the  Official  Handbook  of 
Ceylon  (W.  V.  E.,  1893)  it  is  stated  that  this  palm  is  never  now  found  in  the  forests, 
as  it  is  a  cultivated  species.  "This  last  p.ilm  is  one  of  the  glories  of  our  flora,  reach- 
ing, when  fully  grown  and  in  flower,  to  100  feet  in  height,  of  which  some  20  feet  are 
occupicfl  by  Ihe  great  jjyramidal  flower  head.  It  belongs  to  that  group  of  palms 
which  flower  but  ome;  in  this  case  after  about  forty-five  to  fifty  years'  growth,  and 
die  after  ripening  the  seed." 

Spon  mentions  C.  ausiralis  as  the  Australian  cabbage  palm,  but  this  is  the  same 
as  lAvistona.  The  leaves,  which  are  of  great  size,  yield  a  fiber  by  simply  splitting 
them  longitudinally.  This  is.  employed  in  "the  manufacture  of  hats,  baskets,  net- 
ting, clothing,  etc.'' 

*  Specimens. — U.  S.  Nat.  Mus.;  Mus.  U.S.  Dept.  Ag. 

Cos  (Ceyl.).     See  Artocarims.     See  also  Cos,  p.  12. 
Coscinium  fenestratum.     Weni-wel  or  Ceylon. 

Exogen.  Moiispermaceo .  Climber. 
This  strong,  woody,  scandent  species  is  found  in  great  abundance  in  the  moist 
districts  of  Ceylon  between  sea  level  and  3, .500  feet  altitude.  In  the  Die.  Ec.  Prod. 
Ind.  there  is  mention  of  the  jilant  as  yielding  a  yellow  dye  and  medicine,  but  of  no 
other  economic  use.  In  the  Handbook  of'Ceylon  (W.  C.  E.,  1893)  it  is  stated  that 
the  freshly  cut  stems  or  vines  are  made  into  a  strong  rope  by  twisting,  and  largely 
used  by  the  natives  for  tying  cattle.     The  S]>ecies  is  included  in  Bernardin's  list. 

Costus  afer. 

Credited  to  Africa.  Many  of  the  species  of  Costus  are  ornamental  greenhouse 
plants.  Fiber,  3  feet  6  inches  in  length.  Mentioned  in  lists  of  Beruardin  and  the 
Flax  and  Hemp  Commission  of  1863. 

Cotton.     S])ecies,  cultivation,  etc.     See  Gossyjyium. 

Cotton  grass.     Eriopliornm  latifoJhim. 

Cotton,  Silk,  or  Vegetable  silk.     Species  of. 

This  substauce  is  produced  in  the  seed  pods  of  many  s])ecies  of  plants  in  diff"erent 
parts  of  the  world.  They  are  variously  named  and  in  past  time  much  confusion 
has  existed  in  regard  to  their  nomenclature.  As  they  are  treated  in  this  catalogue 
under  their  botanical  names,  the  following  list  of  princi])al  sjiecies  should  be  referred 
to  for  detailed  description  : 

Asclcpias  syriaca  and  iucarnata.  milk  weed,  silk  weed,  etc.  Temperate  North 
America. 

Asclep'ias  cnrassavica.     I'latanillo,  A'enezuela  and  ludia. 

Bomhax  ceiba.     Tropical  America. 

Bomhux  cumunensis.     Lana  del  tumbor.     "N'euezuela. 

Bomhax  maUiharicum.     India  and  Burma. 

Bomhax  mungnha.     South  America. 

Bomhax puhescens.     South  America. 

Bomhax  viUosum.     Mexico. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  137 

Calotropis  fjigantea.     Troiiical  Africa,  Persia.  India,  and  Ceylon. 

Chorifia  insignix  and  speciosa.     Argentina  and  P>razil. 

Cochlospermum  fiossijphim.     India. 

Erlodendvon  aiifracfuosinn.  The  commercial  ka[tok.  A\'est  Indies.  South  America, 
tropical  Africa,  Java,  India,  and  Ceylon. 

EiiodendroH  samaiima.     Brazil. 

Epilohium  angusiifolium.     Temperate  North  America. 

Ochroma  lagopus.     Balao.     South  America. 

See  C'tboiiiim  menziesii,  Piiht  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands.  This  is  not  a  "silk  cotton,'' 
but  it  resembles  this  substance  and  is  employed  for  the  same  uses.     See  also  Tijpha. 

Cotton-Stalk  fiber.     See  IJast  Fiber,  under  GosHiiphim. 
Cotton"wood.     FopnJus  (lelioides. 
Country  niallo^v  (see  Ahniilon  indicnm). 
Couratari  spp. 

Tbo  genus  Coitraiari,  belonging  to  the  Miir(((cea\  embraces  a  dozen  species  or  more 
of  South  American  trees,  the  superb  examples  occurring  in  Brazil,  along  the  Amazon, 
and  its  tributaries,  and  in  countries  to  the  northward,  Peru  and  Guiana  especially. 
The  flowers  are  largo  and  white,  mixed  with  purple  in  color,  arranged  in  axillary 
spikes.  The  fruit  is  a  woody  capsule,  ol>l<)Ug  in  form,  covered  by  an  operculum 
which  extends  in  a  central  axis  to  the  base  of  the  capsule,  where  the  seeds  are 
inserted.  The  species  of  the  genus  Couratari  and  of  Lecijihis  are  very  neai'ly  related, 
differing  especially  in  their  fruit,  which  in  the  latter  is  hard  and  bulky,  serving  tlie 
natives  for  cups  and  vases.  A  traveler  in  Guiana  states  that  one  of  the  species  of 
that  region  blossoms  about  the  time  that  its  leaves  fall,  and  that  it  is  covered  with 
thousands  of  rose-colored  blossoms  like  the  i^each  tree.  The  timber  of  these  trees 
is  prized  for  many  uses,  and  the  bark  of  several  species  has  long  been  known  to  the 
South  American  Indians  as  yielding  a  valuable  fiber. 

The  trees  of  this  genus  are  particularly  interesting  as  yielding  a  bark  fiber  known 
as  Corteza  del  Damajnluito,  from  Avhich  the  natives  produce  a  kind  of  cloth  for  the 
rough  clothing  of  the  country.  AVhile  authorities  do  not  agree  ujion  any  one  partic- 
ular species  supplying  this  fiber,  at  least  three  are  mentioned,  and  it  is  probable  that 
;ill  are  employed  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  economically.  Prof.  James  Orton,  in  The 
Andes  and  the  Amazon,  states  that  "the  natives  make  a  bark  cloth  from  tlie  Turnri 
ov  Curatarl  Irgalis,  called  Cascaria  n-p  the.  Madeira,  and  from  the  Z/rt;(C/ifl)»«  on  the 
Maranon  (Xapo  and  Huallaga).  The  latter  tree  is  20  inches  in  diameter  and  has  a 
white  bark.  From  the  Tururi  garments  4  yards  long  are  made  of  a' single  piece, 
resembling  a  coarse  woolen  stuff,  with  two  layers  of  wavy  fiber.  In  the  manuscript 
notes  received  from  A.  Dorca  of  Lima,  Peru,  the  species  is  stated  to  be  "  Couratari 
gnianensis,  TJanchdma,  Damaju'hato,  Tatuiari ;  Indians  make  cloth  from  the  bark." 
In  a  recent  work  on  this  subject  "  Corteza  del  Damajiihato,"  by  Dr.  Alberto  L. 
Gadea,  Lima,  1894,  the  above  .species  are  mentioned,  together  with  C.  iaiiari,  C.  estrel- 
Jensis,  and  C.  domestica,  all  fiber  producing.  The  common  names  given  by  this 
author  to  the  Couratari  bark  cloth  will  be  found  under  C.  iauari  below,  -where,  also, 
the  descriptions  of  the  fiber  of  Pamajuhato.  as  well  as  that  from  allied  species  of 
Couratari  is  described. 

Couratari  tauari.     The  Tauary  of  Brazil. 

Exogen.     Mjirtaceoc.     A  forest  tree. 
Xative  xamks. — See  descriptive  matter  below. 
C.  tauari  grows  to  a  height  of  bO  or  60  feet.      Its  wood  and  fiber  were  shown  in 
the  Brazilian  exhibit,  W.  C.  E..  1893.  from  the  River  Amazon,  though  examples  were 
not  secured  by  me. 

Bast  Fiber. — The  interior  barl<  is  extracted  in  thin  layers,  appearing  somewhat 


138  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD, 

like  iiajjer,  auil  in  tliis  form  has  been  used  for  wrapping  cigarettes  and  cigars.  It  is 
also  used  for  cordage,  for  rough  clothing,  and  heddiug  by  the  natives  of  many  South 
American  countries.  In  tlie  recently  published  pamphlet  by  Dr.  (jiadea  on  the  sub- 
ject of  the  employment  by  natives  of  South  America  oi  "  Ihiinajnhato"  fiber  from 
species  of  Couratari.  the  following  account  is  given  of  the  manner  in  which  the  bast 
is  secured. 

By  means  of  a  knife  or  other  sharji  instrument  they  make  two  cuts  in  the  bark  of 
the  tree  at  different  heights,  surrounding  the  entire  tree,  and  then  another  cut  longi- 
tudinal to  the  first.  They  then  tear  or  strip  off  these  sections  of  the  bark,  pound 
it  and  wash  it  to  separate  the  parenchyma  from  the  fiber,  thus  obtaining  a  te.Ktile 
substance  of  the  quality  avc  have  described  in  this  report.  In  other  cases  tliey 
loosen  the  bark  l)y  continued  blows  or  be  iting.  At  the  present  time  in  the  forest 
region  many  tribes  use  garments  of  bark.  Some  of  the  blankets  appear  as  if  made 
from  soft  pliable  leatlier,  otliers  look  like  cotton.  We  see,  therefore,  that  the  sav- 
ages use  the  Llanchama,  Damujuhuto,  Tahiiari,  etc.,  for  bed  blankets,  for  garments, 
for  cordage,  and  the  more  civilized  use  it  for  carpets,  mats,  and  to  take  the  place  of 
paper  in  wrapping  cigarettes. 

According  to  this  authority  the  fiber  is  kncjwn  among  the  natives  of  Peru  as  JJaina- 
jididto  in  Gaen,  Llauclmma  in  MaraHon  and  Loieto,  and  7V<///uni  in  Loreto.  In  Bo- 
livia and  portions  of  Peru,  the  liber  is  called  (dscara  above  the  Madeira,  and  Jiihoci 
in  Beni,  Mamor(^,  Abuna,  and  Madre  de  Dios.  In  Brazil,  Tauaii  on  the  Amazon,  and 
Jiqnltiba  in  Matto  Grosso,  and  Irabirussa  in  Bahia.  In  Colombia  it  is  Talaja.  and 
in  French  Guiana  it  bears  the  name  Ingipipa,  Couratari,  and  Ouhmari,  the  latter 
name  being  used  by  the  (Jalibis  Imlians.  In  Venezuela  it  is  Conrimari.  In  the  geog- 
raphy of  Peru  a  species  of  Couratari  found  in  the  Province  of  Jaen  is  mentioned, 
which  is  called  Damajuhato,  "the  bark  of  which  is  a  ductile  fiber  that  serves  for 
making  cloth  or  blankets."  One  of  these  blankets  is  described  as  being  two  yards 
long  and  three  yards  wide.  Professor  Raimondi,  in  his  work  on  Peru,  describing 
the  people  of  the  Ljuitos,  mentions  the  Llanchama,  "a  species  of  cloth  made  from 
the  bark  of  a  tree,  which  serves  them  for  beds  and  many  other  tiscs.'' 

The  women  of  the  tribe  of  the  Churruyes,  of  Colo:nbia,  use  the  bark  of  the  Tataja 
in  the  fashioning  of  a  sort  of  garment  called  fnnpiina,  which  is  secured  to  the 
shoulders  by  strands  of  palm  fiber,  probably  an  Astvocarijum.  "The  fiber  is  sepa- 
rated by  blows  and  jerks  into  sheets,  resembling  cloth,  which,  when  rubbed,  washed, 
and  exposed  to  the  sun  and  dew,  becomes  light  in  color  and  fiexible.''  The  garment 
is  sometimes  dyed  red.  Some  of  the  Indians  of  Peru  and  Bolivia  make  shirts  of  the 
fiber  (/?i7>oci) ;  these  being  dyed  in  red  and  other  colors.  In  many  other  works  of 
travel,  relating  to  the  regions  where  species  of  Couratari  are  found,  references  to 
the  fiber  are  frequently  made  under  one  or  anotlier  of  the  native  names  already 
recorded. 

C.  guianensis  is  also  called  Tauari  in  Guiana,  and  produces  a  textile  fiber  used  for 
many  purposes.  C.  estrcUensls  furnishes  a  wood  used  in  naval  construction  "and 
produces  a  coarse  hemp."  C.  hualis, -aI&o  prized  for  its  timber,  yields  a  fiber.  This 
tree  is  known  in  Brazil  as  jequiiiba. 

Courimari  (see  Couratari). 
Qovrania  mexicana. 

Exogen.     Jiosacat .     A  small  shrub. 

The  plants  of  the  genus  are  found  in  Mexico  and  Peru,  and  the  species  named  also 
occurs  in  southwestern  United  States.  It  is  an  interesting  shrub  about  2  feet  high 
when  mature,  with  alternate  small  narrow  leaves,  the  edges  turned  down;  covered 
with  glands  on  the  upper  surface,  and  on  the  lower,  white  with  fine  down.  The 
flowers  are  numerous  and  of  a  yellow  color. 

Bast  Fibek. — This  tree,  before  the  advent  of  Europeans,  was  the  great  source  from 
"which  the  Xevada  and  Utah  Indians  obtained  tlie  materials  for  their  dress  goods. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  139 

The  outer  hark  is  rough,  but  the  iiuier  is  soft,  silky,  and  pliablo,  and  of  a  brownish 
color.  It  is  removed  in  long  strips,  varying  in  Avidtli,  a  desirable  quality  in  a  bark 
that  is  used  iu  the  manufacture  of  clothing,  sandals,  and  ropes.  These  articles  were 
formerly  made  by  braiding  strips  of  bark  together,  or  woven  with  the  hand  loom. 
Females  made  skirts  from  strips  of  this  bark  by  braiding  a  belt,  to  which  thej^  sus- 
pended many  strips  of  the  same  material,  hanging  down  to  the  knees  like  a  long 
fringe ;  the  rest  of  the  person  was  naked  in  summer.  Mats  were  also  made  from  this 
bark,  which  were  used  as  beds.     {Dr.  E.  Palmer.) 

*  Specimens  of  fiber,  Bot.  Mus.  Harv.  Univ.     Little  better  than  cypress  bast. 

Co'w  Pea  (U.  S.).     See  Vif/na  catjitfUf. 

Coyal  (S.  Am.).     See  Coco.s  cris2)a. 

Crin  vegetal  (Alg.).     See  Cluimarops  linniUis. 

Crotalaria  juncea.     The  Sunn  Hemp  of  India.  - 

Exogen.     Leguminosiv.     A  tall  shrub. 

Nativk  xames. — Chin  pat  and  Vhnmese  {1\m\.)  ;  .Sanskrit  Jiame,  Sana. 

The  tiber  is  known  as  Sunn,  Taag,  or  C<mkanee  hemp,  Indian  hemp.  Brown  hemp, 
and  Madras  hemp.  "~~"  

Abounds  in  southern  Asia  and  tropical  Australasia.  In  the  Northwest  Provinces  of 
India  it  has  been  cultivated  to  the  extent  of  .50,000  acres  annually.     See  lig.  2,  PI.  V. 

Bast  Fiber. — Takes  the  place  of  jute  in  portions  of  India;  a  better  liber  than  jute, 
lighter  in  color,  with  a  tensile  strength  that  adapts  it  to  cordage  manufacture. 
According  to  experiments  by  Roxburgh  a  dry  line  of  jute  broke  with  a  weight  of  143 
pounds,  aud  when  wet,  with  146;  a  similar  sunn  line  sustained  160  and  209  pounds. 
Royle  has  shown  that  a  cord  8  inches  iu  size  of  best  Petersburg  hemp  broke  with  14 
tons  8  hundredweight  and  1  quarter,  Avhile  a  similar  rope  of  sunn  only  gave  Avay 
with  15  tons  7  hundredweight  and  1  quarter.  He  further  demonstrated  the  slight 
deterioration  of  sunn  hemp  as  follows:  A  rope  made  in  1803  broke  witha  weight  of 
6  tons  0  hundredweight  3  (luarters,  whereas,  when  kept  till  1806,  it  gave  way  with  5 
tons  17  hundredweight. 

In  Dr.  Wight's  experiments  with  sunn,  cotton  rope,  hemj),  and  coir,  they  were 
found  to  stand  a  strain  of  407,  346,  290,  and  224  pounds,  respectively.  The  fiber  is 
used  principany  for  ropes  and  cables,  though  in  India  it  is  manufactured  into  cord- 
age, nets,  sackcloth,  twine,  and  paper.  The  finely  dressed  and  most  carefully  ]»re- 
pared  tiber  is  nuide  into  canvas  of  great  durability. 

Sunn  hemi>  is  "probably  one  of  the  earliest  of  the  distinctly  name'd  libers,  as  we 
find,  in  the  Hindoo  '  Institutes  of  Meml,'  that  the-sacrilicial  thread  of  the  Cshatriya, 
or  Rajpoot,  is  directed  to  be  made  of  sana."  The  plant  producing  this  fiber  is  a 
shrub  growing  from  8  to  12  feet  high,  with  branching  stem  marked  with  longi- 
tudinal furrows.  AVhen  cultivated  it  is  sown  quite  close,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
rainy  season,  in  order  that  the  plants  may  grow  tall  and  thickly  together — the 
natives  say  the  thicker  the  better,  so  as  to  prevent  the  air  passing  through  it — 80  to 
100  pounds  of  seed  being  used  to  the  acre,  aud  some  even  sow  a  larger  (juantity.  In 
some  portions  of  India  two  kinds  are  cultivated,  one  sown  in  May  and  .June,  when 
the  first  showers  fall,  and  the  other  in  October,  though  in  ciuality  they  are  the 
same.  '•'  That  sown  in  .Jiine  is  cut  in  August  aud  Se))tember,  and  tlie  other  about 
April.-' 

Early  in  1893  this  Department  imported  a  small  quantitj-  of  the  seed  for  test  iu 
the  South.  The  seed  was  distributed  to  15  localities.  While  the  plant  grew  well, 
the  stalks  seemed  deficient  in  fiber  save  in  extreme  southern  Florida,  a  fine  sample 
having  been  sent  from  Fort  Lauderdale.  The  exiieriment  is  worthy  of  a  second  trial 
in  this  country,  particularly  in  southern  Florida. 

Cultivation. — In  the  Dictionarv  of  the  Economic  Products  of  India  there  is  a 


140 


USEFUL  FIBER  PLANTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


full  acfoiiut  of  the  treatment  of  the  i)laut  in  cultivatiou,  from  wliich  extracts  are 
reiiroiluced: 

In  Kolaba  it  is  sown  in  Xovember,  after  the  rice  is  harvested,  and  the  stalks  are 
uprooted  in  March.  In  Kolhapvir  it  is  sown  in  August  and  harvested  in  December, 
by  being  cut  wlien  the  plants  are  full  groAvn.  In  Poena  it  is  sown  in  July  and  ripens 
in  Octol)er.  In  the  central  i^rovinces  and  the  northwestern  provinces  it  is  a  kharif 
crop,  being  sown  with  the  advent  of  the  rains,  but  in  Bengal  it  is  sown  a  little  earlier, 
namely,  from  lotli  of  April  to  15th  of  June.  In  i\Iadras  the  sowings  take  place  still 
earlier.  In  the  exjieriments  performed  at  the  Saidapet  farm.  Madras,  sunn  was  sown 
on  the  2d  of  February.  In  the  Ain-i-Akbari  the  i)lant  is  described  as  l)eariug  its 
yellow  llowers in  spring,  a  fact  at  wliich  I\Ir.  Kerr  (writing  of  Bengal)  expresses  some 

astonishment,  since  "it  now  llowers  in 
the  rainy  and  cold  seasons.''  Roxl>urgh 
says  it  is  sown  in  Bengal  in  May  and 
June  and  flowers  by  August — that  is  to 
say,  toward  the  end  of  the  rainy  sea- 
son. In  the  last  agricultural  report  of 
Bengal  it  is  stated  that  the  crop  is  har- 
vested from  liith  of  Aiigust  to  l.">th  of 
September. 

It  refjuires  a  1  ight,  Init  not  necessarily 
rich,  soil,  and  it  can  not  be  grown  on 
clay.  It  is  therefore  sown  on  the  high 
sandy  lands,  less  suited  for  the  more 
important  crojis.  "Wisset  remarks  that 
clay  soils  are  injurious,  but  that  ou  a 
rich  soil  the  fiber  is  of  a  coarser  quality 
than  that  grown  on  dry,  high  situations. 
The  ojiinion  prevails  all  over  India 
that  high  cultivation  is  not  necessary 
for  sunn  hemp.  Of  Kolaba  it  is  said: 
"The  soil  is  roughly  plowed  twice  and 
the  seed  sown  broadcast."  In  Bengal 
'•'the  seeds  are  sown  broadcast.  It  is 
necessary  to  have  the  jdants  grown 
thick,  ot  herwise  they  become  bushy  and 
coarse  and  give  very  iulerior  fibers.'" 
"There  is  nothing  more  required  after 
sowingtillharvesttime."  IntheXorth- 
west  Provinces  "two  plowings  at  most 
are  given,  and  the  seed  is  sown  broad- 
cast and  plowed  in.  It  germinates 
quicker  than  any  other  crop,  the  seed- 
lings showing  above  ground  within 
twenty-four  hours  after  being  sown.  Irrigation,  even  when  necessary,  is  rarely 
given,  and  no  weeding  is  required.'"  In  the  experiments  made  in  INIadras,  to  which 
reference  has  already  been  made,  it  was  apparently  sown  in  drills.  "The  land  was 
prepared  for  an  ordinary  crop  by  plowing  and  harrowing  until  it  was  reduced  to 
a  proper  state,  and  the  seed  was  then  sown  with  the  drill  in  rows  9  inches  apart 
at  the  rate  of  12  pounds  per  acre,"  but  in  the  Northwestern  Provinces  about  1 
maund  (or  80  pounds)  to  the  acre  in  general.  In  Bengal  20  seers  (40  pounds)  to 
the  bigha  (three-fourths  of  an  acre)  is  the  customary  amount  of  seed.  Roxburgh 
states  that  from  80  to  100  pounds  weight  to  the  acre  were  used  in  his  time.  The 
plant  should  not  be  more  than  2^  to  B  inches  apart  each  way.  and  hence  thick  sowing 
is  desirable. 

In  most  cases  the  plants  are  ]iulled  uji  by  the  roots:  in  others  the  stems  are  cut 


Fig.  40. — I,caf  :inil  l>l(>ssom  of  Cidtnhiria  juncca. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  141 

■with  a  sickle  close  to  the  grouud.  Of  the  Poona  district,  Bombay,  it  is  stated  that  the 
crop  is  "left  stftudiug  for  about  a  mouth  after  it  is  ripe,  that  the  leaves,  which  are 
excellent  ruauure,  may  fall  on  the  land."'  It  is  not  clear  whether  the  croji  is  left  on 
its  roots— that  is  to  say,  not  reaped — or  whether  it  is  cut  and  stacked  on  the  lields; 
tho  latter  more  probably.  The  greatest  difference  of  opinion  prevails  as  to  Avhether  the 
cut  crop  should  be  dried  before  being  steeped,  or,  like  jute,  be  carried  at  once  to 
the  retting  tanks.  But  even  with  jute  some  cultivators  dry  the  plants  sufficiently 
to  allow  of  the  leaves  being  rapidly  stripped,  since  these  are  supposed  to  injure  the 
color  of  the  fiber  if  allowed  to  rot  in  the  water  of  the  tank.  With  regard  to  sunn 
hemp,  the  general  rule  may  be  almost  safely  laid  down  that  in  moist  regions,  like 
Bengal,  rapid  submersion  is  preferred,  and  in  dry  regions,  like  Madras,  stacking  the 
crop  is  practiced.  Eosburgh,  from  actual  experiments,  arrived  at  the  opinion  that 
"steeping  immediately  after  the  plant  is  pulled  is  the  best,  at  least  in  Bengal  dur- 
ing the  rains,  for  then  it  is  very  difficult  to  dry  it,  and  the  fiber  becomes  weakened 
and  the  color  injured.'' 

The  average  yield  of  fiber  is  about  640  pounds  per  acre.  In  preparing  the  fiber  in 
the  Luckuow  district  the  stalk  is  cut  near  the  root  when  the  x^laut  begins  to  liower, 
••tied  in  large  bundles,  and  immersed  in  water,  the  natives  putting  small  weights 
upon  it  (generally  mud)  to  prevent  it  being  carried  away.  After  remaining  in  water 
from  four  to  eight  days  it  is  withdrawn,  taken  by  handfuls,  beaten  on  a  piece  of 
wood  or  stone,  and  washed  till  quite  clean,  and  the  cuticle  and  leaves  entirely 
removed."  The  woody  portion  is  separated  by  further  beating  and  shaking  when 
perfectly  dry.  At  Commercolly  the  plants  are  pulled,  tied  in  bundles,  and  are  then 
left  standing  in  water,  on  their  roots,  to  the  depth  of  several  inches.  This  allows  the 
fiber  to  obtain  the  right  degree  of  firmness  without  becoming  parched  and  dried  by 
the  sun.  Oversteeping  causes  the  bark  to  separate  very  easily,  but  weakens  the  fiber. 
Dr.  Roxburgh  found  "no  advantage,  but  the  reverse,  by  dryiug  the  plant  after  macer- 
ation and  before  the  bark  is  removed."'  which  is  the  mode  practiced  in  regard  to  ilax 
and  hemp.  After  the  fiber  has  been  separated  it  is  thoroughly  washed  by  repeatedly 
squeezing  and  wringing  the  water  out  of  it,  after  which  it  is  hung  upon  lines.  When 
dry  the  fiber  is  separated  a  little,  or  combed  with  the  fingers,  and  then  bundled  for 
market. 

In  another  account  it  is  stated  that  small  pools  of  clear  water,  well  exposed  to  the 
suu"s  beams,  seem  l>est  suited  for  the  steeping,  because  heat  hastens  maceration  and 
consequently  preserves  the  strength  of  the  fibers,  while  clean  water  jireserves  their 
color. 

Having  discovered  that  the  necessary  degree  of  retting  has  been  attained,  the  cul- 
tivator, standing  in  the  water  up  to  his  knees,  takes  a  bundle  of  the  stems  in  his 
hand  and  threshes  the  water  with  them  until  the  tissue  gives  way  and  the  long, 
clean  fibers  separate  from  the  central  canes.  According  to  some  writers,  the  retted 
stems,  after  being  partially  washed,  are  taken  out  of  the  water  and  placed  in  the 
sun  to  drj'  for  some  hours  before  beiTig  beaten  out  in  the  way  described.  This  prac- 
tice, while  it  is  followed  in  some  parts  of  the  country,  is  condemned  in  others  as 
injurious,  or  at  least  as  a  useless  delay. 

The  dryiug  is  usually  accouiplished  by  hanging  the  fiber  over  bamboos  to  be  dried 
and  bleached  by  the  sun.  Xaturally,  in  this  country,  such  primitive  processes  as  are 
described  above  would  never  be  resorted  to.  They  are  interesting,  however,  and 
some  valuable  points  may  be  gained  from  the  experience. 

When  the  plant  first  begau  to  attract  attention  among  Europeans  it  was  believed 
the  Hiudo  method  of  treatmeut  could  be  improved  upon  with  favorable  results,  but 
much  opposition  was  raised  by  the  natives,  who  declined  strenuously  going  out  of  the 
beaten  track  of  their  fathers.  It  was  found  to  be  a  much  more  delicate  plant  than 
hemp,  and  consec[uentIy  could  not  be  prepared  after  the  European  methods  without 
a  modification  of  the  processes. 

Other  species. — The  Jubbulpore  hemp  {Crotalaria  tenui/olia)  has  l)eeu  consid- 
ered by  some  authors  to  be  a  variety  of  C.juncea,  and  is  said  to  be  superior  to  Russian 


142  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

hemp  (Cannabis  satira),  breaking  approximately  at  a  straia  of  95  iioiiuds  for  the  first 
named  to  80  itoumls  fur  the  latt»;r.  It  is  4  to  5  feet  in  length,  and  resembles  best 
Petersburg  hemp,  compared  with  which  Royle  considers  it  ecpial,  if  not  superior. 
Although  its  cultivation  is  limited,  it  is  regularly  grown  for  its  fiber,  which  is  used 
for  the  same  purpose  as  sunn.  The  fiber  of  C.  ntusa  is  sold  in  India  as  a  form  of  suun 
hemp.  ('.  sericea  is  another  species  which  yields  liber,  while  C.  striata  is  grown  for 
fiber  "by  the  Santals  in  Chntia  Nagpur." 

Croton  gossypiifolius.     Bois  Sang. 

A  82)ecies  of  Kuphorbiuceir  found  in  Trinidad.  The  plants  of  this  genus  are  chiefiy 
valuable  in  pharmacy,  l)ut  J.  H.  Hart  states  that  the  above  species  yields  a  coarse 
fiber. 

Crowia  (Br.  (luiau.).     Ananas  satira. 

E.  F.  im  Thurn  states,  in  his  work  Among  the  Indians  of  Guiana,  that  Croiria  is 
derived  from  a  lirnmelin.     Sometimes  written  Krona.     See  note  nnder  Jnaiias. 

Cryptostegia  grandiflora. 

Exogen.     Asclepiadaveii'.     Climbing  shrub. 

Two  species  of  the  genus  are  recorded,  from  India  and  Madagascar.  The  plants 
of  this  genus  abound  in  milky  juice,  which,  when  exposed  for  a  short  time  to  tlu- sun, 
is  converted  into  ])ure  caoutchouc. 

Bast  Fihei.'. — The  only  mention  of  the  ])lants  as  producing  liber  is  a  note  i'l  Spon 
to  the  effect  that  ('.  (/roiidiftorn  yields  a  fine,  strong fil>er,  resembling  fiax.  which  may 
be  spun  into  the  finest  yarn. 

Cuba  bast  (see  Hibiscus  elatus). 

Ciibi  (IIoj)!  Indian).     Rhus  trilohala. 

Cuchilixiu  (Ync).     Asriepias  curassavica. 

Culcitium  canescens. 

An  interesting  species  belonging  to  the  ('o)iiposita',  the  generic  name  having  been 
derived  from  Ciilcita,  a  cushion.  The  iilants  of  the  genus  are  woolly  herbs  or  small 
bushes  found  in  the  Andes  of  Peru  and  Colombia,  near  the  snow  limit.  Peruvian 
name,  Hiiira-huira. 

Surface  Fiher. — The  Treasury  of  Botany  states  that  all  parts  of  the  ])lants  of 
this  genus,  except  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaves  of  a  few,  are  coVered  with  dense 
white  or  rusty  colored  woolly  hairs,  which  serve  as  beds  for  those  travelers  who  may 
be  forced  to  sjiend  the  night  in  the  open  air  at  this  great  elevation.  The  manner  of 
making  the  bed  is,  by  first  amassing  a  quantity  of  the  plants,  and,  after  taking  the 
soft  woolly  pajipus  from  the  fiowers,  laying  the  branches,  witii  the  leaves  attached, 
on  the  ground.  On  this  first  layer  the  soft  warm  pappus  hairs  are  siattered,  tlien  a 
third  layer  is  placed  of  leaves  only,  and.  lastly,  another  layer  of  pappus  hairs.  On 
this  couch  the  traveler  reposes  after  the  toils  of  the  day  without  fear  of  frozen  limbs. 
Dorca  states  that  the  fiber  of  C.  cauescnis  is  used  in  Peru  for  torches.  The  genus 
Espeletia  (which  see)  also  belongs  to  this  family  and,  growing  on  the  high  Andes, 
bears  much  resemblance  to  this  in  the  woolly  clothing  of  the  leaves  and  stems,  but 
the  present  is  easily  distinguished  from  it,  the  florets  being  all  tubular,  while  in 
Espeletia  there  is  an  outer  row  of  stra])-shaped  florets  in  the  flower  head. 

Cumare  (Venez.).     See  Aslrocari/uw  tucuma. 
Curculigo  latifolia. 

The  species  of  this  genus  of  imartjUidareo'  are  fouiid  in  Soiith  Africa,  Xew  Holland, 
and  India.  The  sjiecies  named  is  founil  in  Borneo,  where  its  '"leaves  are  soaked  in 
water  and  beaten,  which  loosens  tlie  fiber,  wliicli  is  afterwards  prepared  and  woven 
into  a  very  elosi-  cloth,  known  as  I.amba"  (Off.  Guide  Kew  Mus.). 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  143 

Curcuma  longa. 

IJelong.s  to  the  Zitigibiracew.  The  source  of  turmeric,  which  enters  into  the  coui- 
positiou  of  curry  powder.  Savorgnan  states  that  a  fiher  is  extracted  from  the  mid- 
rib of  the  leaf. 

Curratovr  (P>raz.\     A)ia)i((s  hraefeatiis. 

Currijong,  or  Kurrijong  (Austr.).     See  tSterci(li((.     Brown  Knrrijong 
(see  Commersonia  eehinoia). 

Curua  palm  (Braz.).     See  Aiialea  spevlnhUis. 

Curvijujul  ( ^'ellez.).     Karatas  jf^nm ieri. 

Cus-cus  ([lid.).     See  Androjwgon  squarrosu.s. 

Custard  apple  (W.  Ind.).     See  Anona. 

Cutthalay-nar,  of  Boyle  (Ind.).     See  Af/ave  americana. 

Cutting  grass  (Vict.).     See  Gahnia  radula. 

Cycas  rumphii. 

Exogen.     Cycadacea'.     Small  trees. 

The  species  of  this  genus  are  natives  of  Asia,  Australia,  and  Polynesia.  They  are 
popularly  hut  erroneously  called  sago  palms;  they  furnish  a  kind  of  eago,  hut  it  is 
not  known  commercially.  The  plants  are  said  to  he  intermediate  hetween  palms  and 
ferns.     C.  rumjyJiii  is  found  in  India  and  C.  rerohiia  in  Japan. 

.SruFACE  Fiher. — This  is  somewhat  similar  to  jj*(?«,  being  in  the  form  of  soft  down 
from  the  foliage.  The  entire  leaves  also  serve  as  thatch  material  (structural  fiber), 
while  from  the  leaf  stems,  according  to  Savorgnan,  a  fiber  is  obtained. 

Cynosurus  cristatus.     Crested  Dog's  Tail  Grass. 

From  this  common  British  species  mats  and  baskets  are  sometimes  made  l»y  the 
peasantry  in  county  Wexford,  Ireland. 

Cyperus  corymibosus. 

Endogen.     C'liperaceiv.     I\eed-like  grass  or  sedge. 

A  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  sedge  family,  being  widely  distributed  over 
the  -warmer  parts  of  the  earth.  "When  used  for  textile  purposes  they  are  chiefly 
woven  into  mats  and  the  like,  or  pulped  into  paper.  C.  cori/mhosiis  is  found  in  India 
and  Ceylon — more  commonly  in  wet  places. 

Structural  Fihei:. — This  is  '•'  the  C.  pangorie,  referred  to  by  many  writers  as  one  of 
the  chief  sources  of  the  Mddur,  or  so-called  Calcutta  grass  mats.  Or.  Bidie  writes  that 
several  species  of  sedge  apjicar  to  be  used  for  mat  making,  but  the  one  from  which 
the  finest  .sorts  of  mats  are  manufactured  at  Tinnevelly  and  P;ilghat  is  C.  pangorie. 
Tinnevelly  luiits  of  the  first  quality  are  generally  uncolored  or  with  one  or  two 
simple  bands  of  red  and  black  at  each  end,  and  they  may  be  made  so  fine  that  a 
mat  sufficient  for  a  man  to  lie  on  can  be  rolled  up  and  packed  into  the  interior  of  a 
moderate-sized  walking  stick.  The  strips  of  the  split  sedge  used  in  the  Palghat 
matting  are  not  so  fine  as  those  employed  in  Tinnevelly,  and  the  article  is  therefore 
heavier,  coarser  in  texture,  and  not  so  flexible."    (  Watt. ) 

C.  eftc>ile)itus,exaltatns,  and  irid  are  also  used  in  India  for  mat  making,  and  sleeiiing 
mats  are  made  in  Madagascar  from  the  flattened  culms  of  C.  alternifolitts. 

Cyperus  Icevigatus. 

This  species  abounds,  in  or  near  brackish  water,  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands.  ''A 
common  plant  in  many  tropical  countries  of  the  New  and  Old  World,  extending  also 


144         USEFUL  FIBER  PLANTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 

to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  the  Mediterrauean  regiou.     Hawaiian  name^  Ehtimva. 
The  fine  and  highly  prized  Xiihaii  mats  are  made  of  this  plant.''     {HiUthrand.) 

C.  longa  and  C.  elegans  (W.  lud.)  are  named  in  the  Flax  and  Hemp  Commission 
Report  of  1863. 

Cyperus  lucidus.    Shinin^g  Galingale  Eusn. 

Included  in  Dr.  Guilfoyle's  Australian  list  as  a  pajjer  stock. 

Cyperus  papyrus.    The  Papyrus  of  the  a:ncient.'!. 

Syn.  Papyrus  antiqiionim,  which  was  doubtless  one  of  the  bulrushes  uieutioued 
in  Scripture. 

Grows  on  the  marshy  banks  of  rivers  in  Abyssinia,  Sicily,  and  Palestine.  It  for- 
merly abounded  on  the  Xile,  but  is  now  almost  extinct  in  Egypt  (Spon).  A'arious 
portions  of  the  plant  were  used  in  Egyjit  in  the  construction  of  boats,  mats,  baskets, 
and  even  rough  woven  fabrics.  Its  chief  use,  however,  was  in  the  preparation  of 
writing  paper,  which  was  made  from  the  inner  bark  of  the  stem. 

The  liber  or  bark  is  composed  of  thin  laminsie  or  plates,  and  these  unrolled  and 
placed  together  formed  a  sheet.  The  plates  obtained  near  the  center  were  the  best, 
and  each  cut  diminished  in  value  in  proportion  as  it  was  distant  from  that  part  of 
the  stem.  "When  carefully  peeled  from  the  plant  and  dressed  at  the  sides,  that  these 
might  join  evenly,  these  plates  were  laid  close  together  ou  a  hard,  flat  table,  and 
then  other  pieces  similarly  cut  were  laid  across  them  at  right  angles.  They  thus 
formed  a  sheet  of  many  pieces,  and,  to  promote  their  adhesion,  the  whole  was  mois- 
tened with  the  water  of  the  Xile,  and,  while  wet,  pressure  was  applied.  The  gluti- 
nous matter  inherent  in  the  bark  promoted  adhesion.  They  were  afterwards  dried 
in  the  sun.  Bruce,  the  traveler,  who  frequently  made  the  paper  in  the  manner  thus 
described,  ascertained  that  the  saccharine  juice  contained  in  the  plant  and  dissolved 
and  diffused  in  the  water  causes  the  immediate  adhesion  of  the  parts.  In  some 
cases,  where  the  plants  themselves  did  not  contain  sufficient  juice,  or  when  the 
water  did  not  dissolve  the  juice  properly,  the  strips  of  bark  were  joined  together 
with  paste  made  of  fine  flour  mixed  with  hot  water  and  a  little  vinegar.  After 
being  dried  and  again  pressed  the  paper  was  smoothed  and  flattened  by  beating  it 
with  a  wooden  nuillet.  The  ancient  Egyptians  made  their  sheets  of  prodigious 
length,  though  narrow.  One  of  those  purchased  by  the  Earl  of  Belmoro,  and 
unrolled  by  his  lordship,  was  14  feet  long  by  1  foot  broad.  Belzoni  had  a  papyrus 
23  feet  long  by  Ih  feet  broad.  The  quantity  of  the  papyrus  used  by  the  Egyptians 
in  their  funeral  operations  alone  must  have  been  very  great.  Those  pajiyri  now 
found  in  the  ancient  tombs  and  about  the  mummy  caves  in  Egypt  are  yet  in  a 
wonderful  state  of  preservation.  The  rolls  are  always  compressed.  Sometimes  their 
exterior  is  ornamented  with  gilding,  in  which  case  they  are  looked  upon  as  of  supe- 
rior value.  They  are  generally  thrust  into  the  breast  or  between  the  knees  of  the 
mummy,  and  occasionallj'  they  are  inclosed  in  small  wooden  boxes  or  purses.  lu 
the  museum  of  Naples  there  are  not  less  than  1,700  to  1,800  manuscript  papyri  which 
have  been  dug  from  the  ruins  of  Ilerculaneum,  and  yet  only  a  very  small  portion  of 
this  ancient  city  has  been  dug  out  of  the  mass  of  lava  hj  which  it  was  overwhelmed. 
(lihind.)     See  Ancient  Fibers,  in  the  Introduction. 

C.  syridciis  is  mentioned  by  Bernardiu  as  the  papyrus  of  Sicily. 

Cyperus  tegetiformis.     Seaside  Grass.     Chinese  Mat  Eush. 

Examples  of  cuffs  and  shoes  made  from  this  rush  in  China  are  shown  in  the 
U.  S.  Nat.  Mus.  Plain  and  colored  mattings  from  the  culms  of  this  species  are  shown 
in  the  Kew  Mus.  made  at  Ningpo,  and  "very  largely  used  at  the  present  time  for 
floor  coverings  in  this  country"  (Great  Britain).  A  set  of  tools  as  used  by  the 
the  native  mat  makers  is  also  exhibited,  together  with  samples  of  hats  made  from 
the  same  material.  These  were  formerly  imported  into  Great  Britain  and  Europe  in 
enormous  quantities  and  sold  for  a  few  pence  each.  The  same  material  is  used  in 
Korea  for  mat  making. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  145 

Cyperus  tegetum.     Calcutta  Mat  Eush. 

Common  iu  2)ortious  of  India;  said  to  l>e  found  in  Egypt  and  Abyssinia. 

Fiber. — The  Calcutta  mats  are  cliietly  made  of  this  species.  The  culms  are  split 
into  two  or  three  and  then  Avoven  into  mats  upon  a  warp  of  threads  previously 
stretched  across  the  floor  of  a  room.  The  mat  maker  jiasses  the  culms  Avith  the  hand 
alternately  over  and  under  the  successive  threads  of  the  warp  and  presses  them 
home.  Iu  dift'erent  districts  of  India  it  is  believed  that  two  or  three  allied  species 
are  used  for  this  purpose.  {Watt.)  According  to  Hooker's  Flo.  Brit.  India,  culti- 
vated iu  Mauritius. 

Cyperus  textilis. 

According  to  Spon  this  species  is  widely  dispersed  over  the  Australian  Contiuent, 
not  including  Tasmania  and  New  Zealand.  The  C.  textilis  of  Yon  Mueller  referred  to 
by  Spon  is  C.  vaginatus,  which  see  below.  The  true  C.  textilis  belongs  to  South 
Africa. 

Cyperus  unitans.     Mat  Eush  of  Japan. 

This  is  the  Shichito-i  of  Japan,  from  which  the  cheaper,  rougher  quality  of  mats 
are  made  for  the  common  people,  iu  the  manner  that  Biiujo-i  or  Juncus  effusiis  is 
employed  for  the  mats  used  by  the  higher  classes.  The  mats  exported  to  foreign 
countries  from  Japan  are  also  made  of  these  two  species,  and  haA'e  been  exported  in 
a  single  year  to  the  value  of  650,000  yen,  or  over  $100,000.  The  Shichito-i  mats  are 
chiefly  produced  in  the  Oita  prefecture.  Beautiful  examples  of  both  forms  of  these 
mats,  with  the  raw  material,  were  secured  from  the  Jajianesc  exhibit  at  the  W.  C.  E., 
1893,  at  Chicago,  together  Avith  interesting  information  concerning  them. 

The  Shichito-i  (C.  unitans)  is  cultivated  both  in  upland  or  "Hata''  and  rice  field  or 
"T(t"  (the  irrigated  lands).  If  it  is  grown  in  upland,  soil  of  a  moist  nature  is  pref- 
erable, while  in  paddy  field,  too  much  water  is  undesirable.  Shichito-i  is  propa- 
gated from  roots,  and  for  this  purpose  the  bundles  of  three  or  four  plants  separated 
from  the  mother  stubbles  are  transplanted  iu  well-cultiA'ated  and  manured  nursery 
ground,  in  rows  of  5  sun,  or  6  inches,  apart  at  a  distance  of  same  length  between  the 
bundles.  The  plants  raised  iu  20  "  Tsuho"  of  such  nursery  ground  are  sufficient  for 
transplanting  in  a  "  Tau"  of  the  field  (300  tsuto^l  tau;  10  iau^l  cho,  and  1  cho^2 
acres).  For  transplanting  Shichito-i  iu  the  paddy  field,  or  "  Ta,"  the  land  is  deeply 
cultivated  soon  after  the  harvesting  of  rape  or  wheat  crops,  and  Avell  pulverized  and 
manured  with  rape  cake  or  ' '  Shochu-kasu, "'  the  quantity  of  which  depends  greatly  upon 
the  character  of  soil,  and  then  the  land  is  irrigated.  Two  or  three  root  plants  together 
are  transplanted  in  th(!  rows  of  5  sun  apart  at  a  distance  of  3  sun  between  the  plants. 
Ten  days  after  transplanting  the  water  is  withdrawn  and  the  land  is  dried  to  a  cer- 
tain degree,  and  weeds  are  eradicated,  and  again  the  laud  is  watered.  These  proc- 
esses of  drying,  Aveeding,  and  Avatering  the  laud  are  repeated  two  or  three  times 
during  the  summer  months,  and  the  second  manuring  is  also  giA'cn  iu  the  month  of 
July.  Shichito-i  is  ready  for  harvesting  at  eighty  to  one  hundred  days  after  trans- 
planting, in  fact,  the  reaping  of  the  plants  takes  place  from  the  end  of  August  to  the 
middle  of  September.  For  harA^esting  the  rushes,  the  weather  must  be  A'ery  fine. 
The  rushes  are  torn  lengthAvise  into  two  parts  with  special  tools  and  dried  on  sandy 
ground  or  grass  land. 

The  A'arieties  of  mats  from  this  species  represented  in  the  collection  are  as  follows : 
Kikaiori  Hana-mushiro,  Damask  Hana-mushiro,  common  Hana-mushiro,  two  forms; 
Scidaka  Hana-mushiro,  manufactured  at  Bungo. 

*  S^jerimcns,  Mus.  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag. 

Cyperus  vaginatus.     Sheathed  Galingale. 

One  of  the  most  Avidely  and  most  copiously  distributed  of  the  rush-like  plants  of 
all  Australia.     Its  fiber  is  extraordinarily  tough,  and  accordingly  can  be  formed  into 
a  very  tenacious  paper,  Avhich,  moreoA^er,  proves  one  of  great  excellence.     The  raw 
12L»47— No.  9 — -10 


146         USEFUL  FIBEK  PLANTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 

material  is  available  by  thousands  of  tons  on  periodically  flooded  river  flats,  swampy 
depressions,  and  other  moist  localities  where  a  continued  harvest  of  the  jilant  can 
not  possibly  exhaust  the  soil.     {Dr.  Ferd.  von  Mueller). 

Of  this  plant  (under  the  name  of  C.  textilis)  Spon  says:  "It  is  the  best  indigenous 
fiber  plant  in  Australia,  and  is  likewise  notable  as  beiug  with  ease  converted  into 
pulp  for  good  writing  paper." 

Cypress,  of  North  Carolina.     Taxodium  distichum. 

Cytisus  scoparius.     Broom. 

A  Icguniiuous  species  of  shrub  better  known  as  yielding  a  dyestuff.  Has  been 
recommended  as  a  paper  stock.  The  statement  that  it  was  formerly  employed  in 
Italy  and  south  Frauce  in  textile  fabrics  is  doubted,  though  Savorgnan  includes  it 
in  his  work  under  the  name  Ginestra  da  (iranate,  the  bark  of  which  yields  au  indif- 
ferent fiber.  Probably  has  been  confused  Avith  the  (Miicstra  di  Spa<jna,  ov  Spartium 
jiiuccum,  wliich  has  been  used  for  fabrics  for  ages. 

Dab  grass  (see  Erugrostis  cynosur aides). 

Daedalia  quercina  (see  under  Fomes). 

Daemia  extensa. 

Exogen.     Asclepiadacetc.     Shrubby  climber. 

Hotter  parts  of  India.  Distributed  to  Afghanistan.  Malay  Peninsula.  A  common 
weed  in  the  Dcccan. 

Ua.st  Fiueu.  —  The  stems  supply  a  fine  and  strong  librous  nuiterial,  which  has  been 
recommended  as  a  substitute  for  flax.  "A  very  pretty  liber,  sometimes  used  for  lish- 
iug  lines "'  (  Watt).    Said  to  have  been  awarded  a  medal  at  the  Madras  Exhibition,  1895. 

Dagassa  (Ind.).     Elcusine  coracana. 

Dagger  plant.     Yucva  spp. 

Daguilla  (  Span.).     See  Layetta. 

Dais  cotinifolia.     African  Button  Flower. 

Exogen.  Thymelaacea.  A  large  tree. 
Cape  of  tJood  Hope.  Cultivated  in  Australia.  "  The  bark  is  very  tough.  A  val- 
uable yellow  dye  has  been  extracted  from  the  l)ark  at  the  Melbourne  Botanic  Gar- 
dens."' Other  plants  of  the  genus  are  fouud  in  the  subtropical  portions  of  Asia. 
This  species  is  referred  to  by  Dr.  Guilfoyle,  who  states  that  it  produces  a  fiber  of 
tine  quality. 

Daniajagua  (Kcuad.).     See  Hibiscus  tiliaceus.     Also  written Huamaga, 
DanuKjud.  and  Emajaijua. 

Daniajuhato  (Peru).     See  Couratari  tauari. 
Daphne  cannabina.     The  >epal  Paper  Plant. 

Syn.  Daphne papyrucea. 

Exogen.     TInimelaacecv.     Shrub,  or  small  tree. 
An  India  species,  native  of  the  Himalayas,  w'hich  is  said  to  supply  the  raw  material 
of  the  well-known  Nepal  paper.     Said  to  thrive  only  near  the  oak. 

Bast  Fibeu. — The  inner  bark,  when  prepared  like  hemp,  afiords  a  very  superior 
paper,  particularly  adajited  to  cartridge  manufacture.  "The  process  of  making 
paper  from  this  plant  is  thus  described  in  the  Asiatic  Researches :  After  scraping  the 
outer  surface  of  the  bark,  what  remains  is  boiled  in  water  with  a  small  quantity  of 
oak  ashes.     After  the  boiling  it  is  washed  and  beaten  to  a  pulp  on  a  stone.     It  is  then 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  147 

spread  on  molds  or  iVames  made  of  bamboo  mats.  The  Setburosa,  or  paper  shrub, 
says  the  author  iu  the  al)ove  journal,  is  fouud  ou  the  most  exposed  parts  of  the 
mountains,  and  those  the  most  elevated  and  covered  with  snow  throujjhout  the  prov- 
ince of  Kumaou.  It  is  invariably  used  all  over  Kumaou,  and  is  in  great  request  in 
many  parts  of  the  plains  for  the  purjjose  of  writing  inisuh-7tamahn  or  genealogical 
records,  deeds,  etc.,  from  its  extraordinary  durability.  The  pi>per  is  generally  made 
about  one  yard  square,  and  of  three  difl'ereut  qualities.  The  best  sort  is  retailed  at 
the  rate  of  40  sheets  for  a  rupee,  and  at  wholesale  80  sheets.  The  second  is  retailed 
at  the  rate  of  50  sheets  for  a  rupee,  and  100  at  wholesale.  The  third,  of  a  much 
smaller  size,  is  retailed  at  140  sheets,  and  wholesale  160  sheets  to  170  for  a  rupee." 
A  very  complete  account  of  the  plant  occurs  in  the  Die.  Ec.  Prod.  Ind.,  Vol.  III. 

Daphne  spp. 

]>.  (jnidium  is  reported  iu  southern  Italy,  where  it  abounds  ou  stony  slopes  au<l  is 
used  iu  the  sauje  manner  as  the  Indian  species.  D.  laureola  is  mentioned  in  Ber- 
uardin's  list  as  another  Italian  fiber  species.  This  author  also  lists  I),  sinensis  (odora) 
from  China,  and  T).  laureola  is  reported  by  Spon  as  abundant  iu  Spain,  where  its  fiber 
is  somewhat  employed. 

Daphnopsis  leguizamonis.     Bira-bira. 

A  genus  of  South  Auierican  Tlnjmehiaccd'.  The  species  named  was  represented  in 
the  collection  of  Argentina,  W.  C.  E.,  1893.     The  fiber  Avas  produced  from  the  bast. 

A  beautiful  example  of  the  delicate,  white,  lace-like  fiber  of  D.  tinifolia,  known 
as  burn-nose  bark,  has  been  sent  me  by  William  Fawcett,  of  the  Jamaica  Botanic 
Garden.     Lofgren  also  mentions  1).  hrasilicnsis,  the  Embira  hranca. 

Darakhte-shanah  (Pers.).    Abutilon  indicum. 
Dasylirion  graminifolium.     Bear  Grass  of  Texas. 

Eudogeu.      Liliaceiv.     Aloe-like  leaf  cluster. 

The  species  of  this  genus  are  chiefly  Mexican  plants,  although  the  one  named  is 
found  in  Texas.  The  plants  have  short  stems  and  densely  crowded  linear  leaves 
(which  furnish  the  fiber),  drooping  gracefully;  and  generally  having  a  little  brush- 
like tuft  of  fibers  at  the  point.  From  amidst  these  leaves  the  flower  stalks  rise  to  a 
considerable  height,  the  upper  portion  being  crowded  with  a  dense  panicle  of  flowers. 
Fig.  2,  PI.  IV,  is  a  Dasylirion  grown  in  the  United  States  Botanical  Garden. 

Structural  Fiber. — The  old  museum  collection  of  the  Department  contained  a 
sample  of  this  fiber,  without  data  other  than  the  name.  It  resembles  Istle,  is  about 
2  feet  iu  length,  fully  ec^ual  to  it  iu  strength,  though  in  color  it  is  darker,  due  very 
likely  to  improper  mode  of  preparation.  A  peculiarity  of  this  sample  is  that  the 
filaments  are  filled  with  kinks,  as  though  the  fiber  had  been  folded  upon  itself  a 
number  of  times.  These  do  not  impair  the  strength,  however,  the  breaking  point 
coming  oftener  between  than  on  the  "joints,"  as  these  kinks  appear  to  be,  for  the 
filament  has  no  stifl'ness  at  this  x^oint.  This  should  uot  be  confounded  witli  the  liear 
grass  of  the  Southern  States,  Yucca  ftlamentosa ,  an  inferior  fiber. 

D.  texanum  and  D.  wheeleri  of  the  Southwest  have  thick  clusters  of  long,  slender 
leaves  which  can  be  split  into  fibers.  I  doubt  whether  these  are  textile,  or  good  for 
anything  finer  than  mats  and  basketry.  (Dr.  V.  Racard.)  I).  f/laucophi/Uum  is  a 
Mexican  species  that  has  been  introduced  into  Australia  (Guilfoyle's  List). 

*  Specimen. — Mus.  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag. 

Date  palm  (lud.).     See  Phoenix  dactylifera. 
Datil  (see  Cocos  datil). 
Datilera  (Peru).     See  Phoenix  dactylifera. 
Dealibanni  (Guian.).     Gronoma  haculifera. 


148  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD 

Debregeasia  hypoleuca. 

Exogeu.  Urticacea-.  A  large  slirul). 
Abounds  iu  the  western  temperate  Himalayas;  distributed  to  Afghanistan  and 
Abyssinia.  "Watt  states  that  the  diftereut  species  »i Dehregeasia  yield  strong  and  useful 
fibers,  which  are  more  or  less  extracted  by  the  hill  tribes  of  India.  The  fiber  of  the 
species  named  is  valued  in  the  Panjab  for  net  ropes  on  account  of  its  resistance  to 
the  action  of  water.  It  is  not  steeped,  but  merely  dried,  and  when  brittle  is  beaten, 
the  fiber  separating  readily.  The  liber  is  chiefiy  used  by  the  natives  for  ropes  with 
which  to  tether  their  cattle. 

Debregeasia  velutina. 

Another  Indian  species,  which  is  found  iu  the  Himalayas  from  2,000  to  2,500  feet 
elevation,  and  at  7,000  on  the  Xilgiri  hills. 

In  the  Madras  Manual  of  Administration  {\o\.  I,  318)  it  is  mentioned  as  one  of  the 
chief  fiber  plants  of  the  Presidency.  The  manager  of  the  (ilen  Rock  Fiber  Company, 
AVynaad,  is  reported  to  have  sent  a  consignment,  presumably  of  this  fiber,  to  London. 
It  was  valued  at  £70  per  ton.  Of  the  Madras  Presidency  it  is  commonly  stated  that 
it  is  much  used  both  by  the  natives  generally  and  the  managers  of  coffee  estates. 
Mr.  J.  Cameron,  superintendent  of  the  Botanic  Gardens,  Bangalore,  states  that  "this 
is  one  of  the  commonest  and  most  conspicuous  jdants  in  the  AVynaad  and  Nilgiri 
sholas.  Its  fiber  is  used  for  bowstrings,  and  it  would  only  api>ear  to  reijuire  to  he 
better  known  to  be  much  appreciated." 

D.  wuUicliiana,  Indian,  also  yields  a  fiber  fit  for  cordage,  and  D.  edtdis  is  a  Japanese 
species  that  has  been  recommended  for  cultivation  in  Victoria. 

Deckanne  or  Deccan  hemp  (Ind.).     See  Hibiscus  ((lunahinus. 

Deishar  (Arab.).     AInitllon  indicnm. 

Dendrocalamus  strictus. 

An  Indian  species  of  bamboo,  the  crushed  stems  of  which  have  been  an  article  of 
exjiort  for  }>ai)er  making.     See  ISamhusa. 

Deora  jute  (see  Corchorus). 
Derris  scandens. 

A  handsome  climbing  shrub  belonging  to  the  LvgiDiiiuosw,  met  with  in  the  eastern 
Himalayas  and  western  Ghats  of  ludia,  the  bark  of  which  affords  a  coarse  cordage 
fiber. 

Desijute  (see  Corchorus). 

Desniodium  molle. 

Exogen.     Leguminosa.     An  annual  shrub. 

A  species  of  forage  plant  which  abounds  in  Georgia  and  Florida,  and  which  a 
Georgia  writer  considers  as  good,  for  the  locality,  as  clover. 

Specimens  of  the  canes  were  submitted  to  the  Department  as  of  possible  utility 
in  fiber  production.  The  fiber  is,  however,  of  douljtfnl  utility  for  any  purpose,  with 
the  disadvantage  of  a  small  yield.  A  stem  free  from  l)ranches  and  6  feet  high  can 
easily  be  grown  in  sandy  soil  if  the  seed  is  sown  thickly. 

Desniodium  tilicefolium. 

This  is  an  Indian  species  that  is  extensively  employed  for  rope  making  and  is  also 
used  for  paper  manufacture  iu  the  Himalayas.  It  is  said  that  the  fiber  is  exported 
to  Tibet  from  Kumaon  for  jiaper  stock.  D.  latifoliiim,  India  and  Ceylon,  is  used  for 
the  same  purpose. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE, 


149 


Desmoncus  macroacanthus.     The  .Iaoitara, 

This  siiocifs  grows  in  the  Ciitiuga  lorests  of  the  Upper  Kio  Negro  and  on  the  mar- 
gins of  small  streams,  climbing  over  trees  and  hanging  iu  festoons  between  them, 
throwing  out  its  armed  leaves  on  every  side  to  catch  the  unwary  traveler.  The  stem 
of  this  palm  is  very  slender,  weak,  and 
Hexible,  often  sixty  or  seventy  feet  long, 
and  climbing  over  bushes  and  trees  or 
trailing  along  the  ground.  It  is  armed 
Avith  scattered  tubercular  prickles. 
The  leaves  grow  alternately  along  the 
stem ;  they  are  pinnate,  with  from  three 
to  tivo  pairs  of  leatlets,  beyond  which 
the  midrib  is  produced  and  armed  with 
several  pairs  of  strong  spines  directed 
backward,  and  with  numerous  smaller 
prickles.  The  leaflets  are  ovate,  with 
the  edges  waved  or  curled.  -The  bases 
of  the  petioles  are  expanded  into  long 
membranous  sheaths.  The  spadices 
grow  on  long  stalks  from  the  axils  of 
the  leaves  and  are  simply  branched. 
The  spathes  are  ventricose,  erect,  per- 
sistent, and  prickly,  and  the  fruit  is 
globular,  of  a  red  color,  and  not  eata- 
ble. The  rind  or  bark  of  this  species 
is  much  used  for  making  the  "tipitis" 
or  clastic  plaited  cylinders  used  for 
sciueezing  the  juice  out  of  the  grated 
mandioca  root  in  the  manufacture  of 
farina.  These  cylinders  are  sometimes 
made  of  the  rind  of  certain  water  plants 
and  of  the  petioles  of  several  palms,  but 
those  constructed  of  "Jacitdra'' are  said 
to  outlast  two  or  three  of  the  others, 
and  though  they  are  much  more  diffi- 
cult to  make,  are  most  gene  rail  j'  used 
among  the  Indian  tribes.     (  Wallace.) 

This  Brazilian  palm  is  mentioned  in  the  Handbook  of  the  State  of  Para,  W.  C.  E., 
1893,  as  producing  a  useful  fiber'.     It  is  there  known  as  the  jncitdra. ' 

DesTval  jute  (see  Corchorus). 

Devil's  cotton  (see  Ahroma  augusta). 

Devil's  nettle  (see  Laportea). 

Dhak  (Ii'd.).     Butea  frondosa. 

Dhaman  and  Dhamru  (Ind.),     Grciria  asiatica. 

Dhunchi  (lud.).     See  iSeshania. 

Dianella  tasmanica.    Broad-leaved  Flax  Lily. 

A  genus  of  Liliacew  found  in  Australia  and  southern  Asia.  They  have  fibrous  roots 
and  grass-like  leaves. 

Fiber. — This  species  was  secured  at  the  Phila.  Int.  Exh.,  1870,  under  the  name 
I>.  Jatifolia.  It  was  prepared  by  Dr.  Guilfoyle,  who  stated  on  the  label  accompanying 
the  specimen  that  the  plant  grows  on  the  banks  of  creeks  and  fern  gullies  in  elevated 


Fig.  47.  —A  iilant  of  Desmoncus  macroacanthus. 


150 


USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


situations,  where  its  leaves  sometimes  attain  a  length  of  6  feet.  He  considered  the 
fiber  good,  and  excellent  for  paper  stock.  The  specimen  preserved  much  of  its  grass- 
like form,  having  been  prepared  experimentally  in  a  simple  manner.  Some  of  the 
filaments  were  white  and  brilliant,  finite  strong;  a  few  fibers  twisted  together 
rcfiuired  (xiiite  an  effort  to  break  them.  Its  name  does  not  appear  in  the  list  of  use- 
ful textile  fibers,  from  which  it  is  to  be  inferred  it  has  not  hitherto  been  known  as  a 
fiber-])roducing  jilant  of  anj'  value. 

In  Dr.  Guilfoyle's  recently  published  brochure.  Fibers  from  Plants,  Indigenous 
and  Introduced,  four  other  -species  are  mentioned:  D.  ciiriilcd,  1>.  elvgans,  J),  hrris, 
and  D.  rerohita. 

"Specimen. — Mus.  V.  S.  IJept.  Ag. 


r  f'f  / 


% 


FiQ.  48. — Tree  fern,  Dicksonia. 


Dichelachne  crinata.     Horsetail  Grass. 

A  tough  grass,  universally  diffused  over  extra-tropical  Australia,  and  occurring 
also  in  New  Zealand. 

According  to  Dr.  Ferd.  von  Mueller,  this  species  yields  a  tenacious  paper,  especially 
fit  to  be  usedfor  thin  wrapping  or  ])acking  paper.  It  is  not  unlikely  to  make  fair  print- 
ing and  the  less  costly  kinds  of  writing  and  tissue  paper. 

Dicksonia  culcita. 

This  species  is  mentioned  by  Hillebrand  in  the  Flora  of  Hawaii.  See  lander 
Cihotium,  where  several  allied  species  of  tree  ferns,  supplyingthe  Pulu  of  commerce, 
are  described.     Fig.  48  is  a  species  of  Dicksonia  in  the  U.  S.  Botanical  Gardens. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  151 

Dictyosperma  fibrosum.    Madagascar  Piassaba. 

J'hulogen.     ralma. 

A  species  of  palm,  known  as  Vonitra,  iuhabiting  the  islantl  of  Madagascar,  the 
trunk  of  which  is  densely  covered  with  brownish  fibers  about  18  inches  long,  formed 
Ironi  the  inner  sheaths  and  the  edges  of  the  petioles. 

STniiCTiKAi.  FiHKR. — Individual  libers  liner  and  more  llexible  than  Brazilian  j>ms- 
.so/>rt  and  slightly  shorter ;  in  other  respects  resemble  it  closely.  The  quantity  pro- 
duced was  never  very  large,  and  in  the  early  stages  of  the  enterprise  the  fiber  was 
shipped  in  a  very  rough,  uncombed  stnto.  Latterly  the  quality  has  much  improved, 
and  during  the  period  when  this  class  of  fiber  commanded  specially  higli  prices  the 
shipments  Avere  probably  remunerative.  Owing,  however,  to  the  discovery  of  west 
Mvicn, piassahttf  ov  "bass  fiber,"  obtained  from  Raphia  Hnifera,  the  prices  olitained 
for  Madagascar  j)m8sa/>rt  have  apparently  fallen  almost  as  low  as  the  cost  of  produc- 
tion; and  little  has  appeared  lately  in  the  London  market.     (Kew  Bull.,  Oct.,  1894.) 

Well-combed,  straight,  and  clean  fiber  is  worth  in  England  £30  to  jC46  per  ton. 
Has  almost  entirely  disappeared  from  the  market. 

Diplothemium  littorale.     Yatay-pony. 

a  species  of  palm  found  in  Argentina  (Corrientes  and  Misiones),  from  the  leaves  of 
which  a  good  fiber  is  produced  {Niederlein). 

Dirca  palustris.     Moosewood. 

Exogen.     Thymehracea'.     A  shrub. 

This  species  is  found  in  the  northern  portions  of  the  United  States  and  Canada. 
It  does  not  yield  fiber  m  any  sense,  though  its  flexible  twigs,  which  can  l)e  readily 
tied  in  knots,  are  employed  as  thongs.  Also  called  leatlierwood  and  wicopy.  The 
Department  collection  contains  specimens  of  the  leathery  twigs. 

IJ.  occid en  talis  is  a  California  species.  Dr.  Havard  writes  that  its  strong,  tough, 
nitrous  bark  was  formerly  much  used  by  the  Indians  for  ropes,  nets,  and  baskets. 

*  Specimen. — Mus.  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag. 

Dishcloth  plant  (see  Luff  a). 
Diss  (Alg.).     See  Ampelodesma  tenax. 
Djai-soi  (Borneo),     Cocos  nucifera. 
Dodo  cloth  (see  Apocynum). 
Dolichandrone  falcata. 

Family  Bignoniacece.  A  small  tree  of  central  and  southern  India,  used  for  timber, 
and  also  in  pharmacy,  a  decoction  being  made  from  its  fruits. 

Bast  Fii!ER. — Both  I),  falcata  and  J),  rhredii  yield  blackish,  coarse  bark  fibers. 
Specimens  of  the  first  named  were  sent  to  the  Amsterdam  Exhibition. 

Dolichos  trilobus. 

Exogen.  Leguminosa'.  A  bush. 
The  genus  has  representatives  throughout  the  temperate  and  tropical  regions  of 
America,  Asia,  and  Africa.  They  are  herbaceous  or  shrubby  jilants,  or  beans,  many 
having  twining  stems.  While  chiefiy  valuable  as  food  plants,  some  species  are  valued 
for  their  fiber.  "IJ.  trilobus  is  a  very  important  fiber  plant  in  China,  textiles  made 
from  it  being  termed  grass  cloth,  like  those  from  nettle  fiber.  It  has  been  utilized 
from  earliest  times,  and  the  manufacture  is  extensive."  (Spon.)  Several  species  of 
DoUclios  grown  in  India  are  described  in  full  by  Dr.  George  W^att,  but  no  mention  is 
made  of  their  yielding  fiber.  See  Pachyj'hizns  angulatus,  the  revised  name  of  the  plant, 
D.  trilobus  having  been  used  in  this  instance  as  Spou's  name. 


152  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

Donibeya  acutangula  et  sp.  div. 

Exogeus.     StercuJiaced'.     8brnbs  or  small  trees. 

The  sjiecies  of  Domheiin  are  African  shrubs  abounding  in  Madagascar  and  Manii- 
tins,  extending  as  far  north  as  Abyssinia.     The  plants  are  often  seen  in  hothouses. 

This  species  is  cultivated  in  the  Island  of  Hourbon,  where  it  is  said  to  be  held  in 
esteem  for  its  fiber.  A  variety,  J>.  a)u/uUit(i,  according  to  Savorgnan,  "  is  cultivated 
in  the  Island  of  Reunion  for  its  textile  fiber,  from  which  cordage  is  made."  This 
author  also  mentions  D.  fcrruijinea,  Isle  of  France,  as  yielding  a  strong  iiber  fit  (or 
cordage.  Spon  states  that  the  fibrous  bark  of  another  Madagascan  si)ecies,  7>.  can- 
nahina  {D.  riscosa),  is  made  into  strong  ropes.  The  bark  of  7>.  phiUitiifoVia,  according 
to  A.  A.  Black,  is  also  used  in  Madagascar  for  the  manufacture  of  ropes,  twines,  etc, 
D.  waUichii  is  mentioned  by  Bemardin,  and  in  the  Flax  and  Hemp  Commission  list. 

Dombeya  natalensis. 

Filler  of  the  above  species,  which  is  a  native  of  Natal,  was  received  from  the  Vic- 
torian collection  of  Dr.  Gulfoyle,  Phil.  Int.  Exh.,  1876.  In  Victoria  the  plant  forms 
a  most  beautiful  flowering  shrub  or  small  tree  and  is  of  quick  growth.  Its  fiber  is 
suitable  for  cordage  or  for  paper  stock.  Like  all  the  species  belonging  to  this  family, 
the  fiber  is  browni.sh  in  color,  though  lighter  than  "  Kurrijovfj,"  and,  judging  from 
the  museum  samples,  is  a  little  stronger.  It  is  at  best,  however,  a  very  coarse  fiber 
and  is  not  to  T)e  comjiared  with  mallow  liber  of  the  commonest  description,  neither 
is  it  as  fibrous  in  texture  as  Commersonia. 

^Specimen. — Mus.  \].  S.  Dept.  Ag. 

Doryanthes  excelsa.     Spear  Lily. 

Endogen.     .{manjUidacece.     Aloe-like  leaf  cluster. 

Hahitat. — East  Australia. 

The  plant  is  "a  tall  straight  stem,  20  feet  high,  springing  from  an  aloe-like  tuft  of 
broadly  ensiform-spreading  basal  leaves,  the  stt^m  itself  clothed  with  much  smaller 
appressed  ones."  The  stem  terminates  in  a  bulky  flower  head  composed  of  crimson 
flowers.     It  is  sometimes  met  with  in  cultivation. 

Strixtiral  Fiber. — Specimens  were  secui'ed  from  the  New  South  Wales  and 
Victorian  collections  received  with  the  Australian  exhibit,  Phil.  Int.  Exh.,  lS7(i. 
According  to  Dr.  Guilfoyle,  who  has  prepared  its  fibers  experimentally,  the  leaves 
are  a  eoni])lete  mass  of  fiber  of  great  strength,  fit  for  strong  ropes,  matting,  cordage, 
etc.  It  can  also  be  employed  in  paper  making  with  good  results.  It  is  of  moder- 
ately quick  growth  in  Victoria.  The  specimen  has  not  been  thoroughly  prepared, 
as  some  of  the  filaments  are  quite  white,  while  the  majority  are  a  rust  red.  They 
are  still"  but  fine,  the  white  fibers  being  smooth  and  glossy.  In  strength  the  sample 
examined  is  considerably  below  the  average  of  fibers  in  this  family. 

In  a  recent  publication  Dr.  Guilfoyle  mentions  D.  palmerl,  and  D.  guilfoylex,  the 
Giant  Queensland  Lily,  as  fiber  producing. 

*  Specimens. — Mus.  \].  S.  Dept.  Ag. 

DoTvaniya  (Ceyl.).  See  Greicia. 
Doum  palm.  Hyphwne  thebaica. 
Draceena  draco.     Dragon's  Blood  Tree. 

Endogen.     Ltliacece. 

Habitat. — TeneriflFe,  Canary  Islands.     Cultivated  in  Australia.     See  fig.  49. 

/).  draco  ''has  a  tree-like  stem,  simple  or  divided  at  the  top,  and  often,  when  old, 
becoming  much  branched,  each  T)ranch  terminated  by  a  crowded  head  of  lanceolate, 
linear,  entire  leaves  of  a  glaucous-green  color,  which  embrace  the  stem  by  their 
base."  The  tree  derives  its  name  from  a  resinous  secretion  or  exudation  known  to 
commerce  as  dragoon's  blood,  which  at  one  time  formed  an  article  of  considerable 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE. 


153 


export  from  the  Canaries.  Some  of  the  plants  are  gigantic  in  size,  "  the  colossal 
dragon  tree  at  the  town  of  Orotovia.  in  Tenerifle,  being  To  feet  high  and  48  feet  in 
cironmference,  with  an  antiquity  which  must  at  least  bo  greater  than  the  pyramids." 
Structural  Fiber.-  -Specimens  received  with  the  \'ictoriau  collection  from  the  Mel- 
bourne Botanic  Garden,  where  it  is  thoroughly  established.  Dr.  Guilfoyle  states  that 
"the  liber  is  strong  and  flexible,  but  the  tree  is  of  very  slow  growth."     It  is  prepared 


Fig.  49. — Greenhonse  plant  of  Drncmna  draco. 


from  the  leaves,  and  is  white,  line,  and  lustrous,  and  between  18  inches  and  2  feet  in 
length.     It  IS  not  as  strong,  however,  as  the  Cordyline  fibers,  though  much  softer. 

Bernardin  mentions  four  species:  D.  draco,  1>.  mauriliana,  J>.  marginaia,  from  Mau- 
ritius, and  7>.  ierminalis.  Sandwich  Islands,  known  as  Ti.  llillebrand  refers  this 
Species,  however,  to  Cordyline,  and  states  that  the  leaves  are  used  in  Hawaii  as  wrap- 
pers for  food,  or  for  plates.     Ti  is  the  Tahitian  name  of  the  tree. 

"Specimens. — Mas.  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag. ;  Bot.  Mas.  Karv.  Univ. 

Dragon's   blood  tree  (see  Draccena). 


154  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

Dregea  volubilis. 

Exogeu.     .Isclepiadacca'.     Tall  climbiug  shrnl). 
An  Indian  species,  found  in  Bengal,  Assam,  the  Deccan,  and  Ceylon.     Contains  a 
.strong  fiber  used  by  the  natives.     In  Bombay  the  creeper  is  used  as  a  cordage  sub- 
stitute in  binding  bundles  of  wood. 

^  (Gevl.)-     See  Anodemlron, 

Dun  \  ^      • 

Dunchee  (Iiul.)-     See  Seshania  acnleata. 

Dwabote  (Buiin.).     See  Kydia. 

Edgeworthia  gardneri. 

Exogen.     Th}imelaace(v.     A  large  bush. 

Found  in  the  Himalayas  between  4,000  and  9,000  feet  elevation. 

Bast  Fiber. — The  strong,  tough  iiber  obtained  from  the  long,  straight,  sparsely 
branched  twigs  of  this  bush  must,  sooner  or  later,  become  one  of  the  most  valuable 
of  Indian  fibers.  The  finest  (lualities  of  Nepal  ])aper  are  made  from  this  plant,  which 
produces  a  whiter  paper  than  that  obtained  from  Daphne  cannahina.     ( JFatt.) 

Edgeworthia  papyrifera.     Mitsumata  of  Japan. 

One  of  the  three  species  of  plants  employed  in  the  paper  industries  of  .lapan. 
The  fibers  of  Mitsumata  {E.  papyrifera)  and  (ianpi  {Wikstrccmia  canesccns)  are  not 
considered  strong  enough  to  use  singly  for  paper  making,  yet  they  are  used  exten 
sively  with  other  coarse  raw  materials  "in  order  to  give  tenderness,  smoothness, 
and  luster  to  paper  of  low  (juality'' 

FiBKH. — The  specimens  in  the  Department  collection  from  Japan  are  in  the  form 
of  raw  stripped  bast,  and  the  same  bleached  and  cleaned  of  ei>iderniis  and  woody 
matter.  The  strips  arc,  6  to  8  feet  in  length,  very  clean,  and  yellowish  white  in  color. 
There  is  also  a  sample  of  pulp,  and  different  forms  of  paper. 

Economic  consij>krations. — Soil  fit  for  the  Mitsumata  is  about  the  same  as  that 
for  the  pai>er  mulberry  plant,  but  the  topograjihical  conditions  suitable  show  quite  a 
contrary  result,  the  paper  muiberry  flourishing  in  exposed  situations,  while  the  Mit- 
sumata succeeds  in  shaded  places,  but  free  from  stagnant  water,  and  conse(iuently 
the  best  situation  for  the  Mitsumata  culture  is  the  slope  of  mountains  or  hill  sides, 
the  soil,  gravel  loam,  belonging  to  the  paleozoic  or  mesozoic  geological  formation. 

It  can  be  propagated  either  by  seed,  layering,  or  by  cuttings;  but  the  most  exten- 
sive and  practical  method  is  raising  plants  from  the  seed.  The  seed  is  sown  between 
the  rows  of  barley  or  wheat  or  any  other  places  where  they  are  not  exposed  to  sun- 
light. When  the  land  is  poor,  some  liquid  manure  is  given  to  the  row  before  the 
seed  is  sown.  In  March  of  the  next  year  the  young  shoots  are  dug  out  and  trans- 
planted at  the  rate  of  5,000  per  tau  '  on  hilly  places  or  6,000  per  tau  on  level  land.  In 
planting  out  it  is  considered  that  a  close  plantation  is  rather  better  than  an  open 
one.  Plowing  should  be  done  two  or  three  times  a  year,  manuring  at  the  same  time 
either  with  Chochin  cake  (by-product  of  rice  spirit  brewing},  oil  dake,  or  rice  bran, 
or  sometimes  with  green  manure. 

It  yields  the  first  crop  in  the  second  year,  and  afterward  every  other  year.  It  is 
harvested  from  November  to  March  of  the  next  spring,  the  yield  commonly  ranging 
at  about  300  kilograms  per  acre,  though  there  are  some  cases  of  a  product  of  over 
1,000  kilograms  of  raw  bark.  The  process  of  Vjleaching  is  quite  the  same  as  employed 
for  paper  mulberry  bark,  Broussonetia  papyrifera. 

Edredon  vegetal  (see  Ochroma  lagopus). 
Ehua'wa  (Hawaii).     Cyperus  liemgatus. 

'  Tau,     See  under  Cyperus  unitans. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE. 


155 


Ejoo  or  Ejii  (^rala>').     See  Arenga. 
Elseis  guineensis.     On.  Palm. 

Endoyen.     Palmd'.     Palin,  20  to  30  feot. 

This  genus  iuclndes  the  oil  palm  of  west  Africa,  which  has  been  introduced  into 
the  A\'est  Indies,  and  several  mostly  South  American  and  AVest  Indian  species. 

Stuuctukal  Fiber. — This  is  obtained  from  the  inner  leaflets  of  the  plant,  and  is 
described  as  being  almost  as  fine  and  tenacious  as  human  hair.  It  is  extensively 
nsed  by  the  natives  for  lishing  lines  :nid  other  ])uri)oscs  where  greiit  streugth  is 
required. 

In  the  preparation  of  this  fiber  a  considerable  amount  of  skill  is  shown.  The 
jiinnie  of  the  young  leaves  which  have  not  been  hardened  by  exposure  are  the  only 
ones  that  can  be  made  use 
of.  If  too  old,  the  fiber  can 
not  be  separated  from  the 
tissue,  and  if  gathered 
before  the  leaves  have 
opened  it  has  not  sufiicieut 
strength  to  stand  the  rough 
handling  which  it  has  to 
undergo  while  in  process  of 
manufacture.  If  gathered 
at  the  right  age  the  strip- 
ping of  the  fiber  offers  no 
difliculties,  although  the 
process  Is  both  tedious  and 
wasteful.  So  far  as  can  be 
ascertained,  the  only  use 
to  which  this  fiber  is  put 
is  the  making  of  fishing 
lines  and  fine  cords.  It 
would  appear  to  be  too 
costly  for  native  cloth,  net, 
or  bag  making.  The  fol- 
lowing results  of  actual 
experiments  will  serve  to 
show  the  tedious  and  ex- 
pensive nature  of  the  pro- 
cess which  has  just  been 
described ;  A  day's  hard 
work  is  counted  ■«  ell  spent 
on  the  production  of  6 
ounces  of  fiber  from  36 
pounds  of  the  raw  mater- 
ial. Estimating  the  value 
of  labor  to  the  native  at  not  more  than  3il.  a  day,  and  leaving  out  of  consideration 
the  time  expended  in  collecting  and  sorting  the  leaves  in  the  forest,  the  actual  cost 
of  this  material  to  the  producer  can  not  be  calculated  at  less  than  £75  a  ton.  It  is 
therefore  clear  that  it  would  be  impossible  to  develop  an  exjiort  trade  in  this  ai-ticle 
at  the  present  rate  of  European  prices.     (Kew  Bull.,  March,  1892.) 

Spon  mentions  the  species  and  says  of  the  fiber  that  "it  has  not  received  the 
attention  it  seems  to  merit.  The  filaments  are  fine,  clean,  and  regular,  like  bun<lle8 
of  horsehair;  and  are  supple  and  very  strong."  E.  mdanococca,  the  "  Corozo,"  is 
named  in  Dr.  Ernst's  list  of  Venezuelan  fiber  palms. 

Ela-we"wel  (Ceyl.).     See  CaJnmus  rotang. 


KKt.  50. — The  oil  pahn,  Elteis  guineensis. 


15fi  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

Eleocharis  acuta.     Slender  Spike  Eusii. 

A  genus  of  cyperaceons  i)lant8  liaviiii:;  a  wide  range  from  tbc  torrid  zone  almost  to 
the  arctic.  This  species  is  common  in  Australia  in  moist  situations,  and  is  allied  to 
the  (  reejiing  spike  rush  of  middle  Europe.  It  is  named  by  Dr.  Ferd.  von  Mueller,  of 
Melbourne,  as  a  good  paper  stock.  "The  local  experiments  here  show  this  and  many 
other  cyperaceons  plants  exquisitely  adapted  for  good  printing  and  tissue  paper, 
and  a  by  no  means  A'ery  inferior  writing  paper.  Better  api)liances  will  necessarily 
imiJrove  the  (j^uality  of  the  jiaper."     (Jh:  Ferd.  ron  Mitelhr.) 

The  stout  spike  rush,  E.  sphucelata,  a  swamp  land  species  of  southeast  Australia 
and  Tasmania,  is  said  by  the  same  authority  to  be  applicable  to  similar  uses.  E.  ])lan- 
taginea  and  E.  fistulosa  are  Ceylon  species,  from  the  culms  of  which  sleejiing  mats 
are  made,  and  examples  of  these  are  jireserved  in  the  Kew  Mus. 

Eleocharis  palustris. 

Syn.  ,^virpii.s jjalustris. 
A  sedge  common  in  America,  Europe,  northern  Asia,  and  southern  Africa.     Used 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  common  bulrush,  Sriypus  laciisiris,  which  see.     Savorg- 
nan  states  that  E.  jjrt/Ms/ns  is  especially  valued  in  Holland  for  making  beautiful 
matting. 

Elephant  G-rass.     T}iph(i  latifolia. 

Eleusine  coracana.     Eaoi  Millet. 

Endogeu.     Oruniiiiiw.     An  erect  annual  grass,  2  to  4  feet. 

Common  namks. — African  Millet;  Ragi  Millet.     Indian  names,  Daganna,  Kora- 
kan,  and  Mandiia. 

"Cultivated  in  India,  southern  C^hina,  Japan,  and  in  many  parts  of  Africa  for  the 
grain,  which  is  used  as  food.  It  forms  the  principal  food  of  many  African  tribes. 
In  spite  of  the  bitter  taste  of  the  Hour,  a  kind  of  bread  or  unleavened  cake  is  made 
of  it.  Beer  is  brewed  from  the  grain  in  Abyssinia.  Said  to  yield  good  crops  even 
on  verj'  poor  soil,  and  may  be  cultivated  in  the  same  way  and  for  the  same  purjioses 
as  millet."     {F.  Lamson-Scrihner.) 

Savorgnan  states  that  fiber  has  been  extracted  from  this  species  Avhich  is  useful  for 
rough  cordage.  E.  indica,  which  has  been  distributed  throughout  the  warmer  coun- 
tries of  the  globe,  is  particularly  abundant  in  the  Southern  States,  growing  in  culti- 
vated grounds  about  dwellings,  etc.  It  has  somewhat  wiry,  flattened  stems,  many 
springing  from  a  single  root,  and  rather  thick  leaves.  It  might  be  useful  as  a  paper 
plant;    known  as  wire  grass,  crab  grass,  etc. 

Elionurus  hirsutus. 

Endogeu.     (iramincw.     A  perennial  grass,  1  to  2  feet. 
India.     ^Vatt  mentions  that  tlie  roots  are  claimed  to  yield  a  fiber  for  use  in  weav- 
er's brushes. 

Elm  (see  Ulmus). 

Elodea  canadensis.     Water  Weed. 

l>ernardin  gives  /•-'.  cnnndcnsis  as  a  paper  material.     ( )f  doubtful  utility. 

Elymus  arenarius.     Sea  Lyjie  Grass. 

This  species,  allied  to  the  common  barley,  is  known  as  a  common  sand-binding  grass 
along  the  shores  of  Great  Britain,  but  is  found  also  in  other  parts  of  Europe  and  in 
America,  particularly  on  "our  North  Atlantic  coast  and  on  our  western  shores  from 
Santa  Cruz,  Cal.,  northward  to  within  the  arctic  zone.  The  seeds  are  used  for  food 
by  the  Digger  Indians  of  the  Northwest,  and  as  the  grass  springs  up  around  their 
deserted  lodges  it  is  called  by  the  .settlers  'Raucheria' grass.  This  lynie  grass  is 
usually  regarded  as  possessing  little  or  no  forage  value,  but  in  very  moist  climates 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE. 


157 


or  under  certain  favorable  conditions  it  may  yield  a  valuable  fodder,  for  when  young 
tin-  grass  is  tender  and  nutritious."     {F.  Lamson-Scribner.)    See  fig.  51. 

Structural  Fiuf^R. — This  species  has  been  employed  in  Labrador  in  the  manu- 
facture of  table  mats  and  baskets,  and  it  might  be  worthy  of  consideration  as  a  paper 
stock.  £.  arenaritts  is  one  of  the  most  iiseful  basket  grasses  of  the  Aleutian  island- 
ers, though  E.  mollis  and  A',  sihiriais  are  also 
employed.  Dr.  O.  T.  Mason  states  that  the 
material  is  employed  not  only  "when  macer- 
ated and  treated  as  hemp,  but  as  a  straw 
plait,  which  is  described  as  follows : 

The  ornamentation  on  the  outside  of  the 
mats  and  baskets  is  formed  by  embroidering 
on  the  siirface  Avith  strips  of  the  straw  in- 
stead of  the  macerated  fiber,  which  forms 
the  body  of  the  fabric.  The  embroidery 
stitches  in  these,  as  in  most  savage  basketry, 
does  not  always  pass  through  the  fabric,  but 
are  more  frequently  whipped  on,  the  stitches 
passingalwaysbetween  the  two  woof  strands, 
as  in  aresene  embroidery,  showing  only  on 
the  outside.  There  is  no  Chinese  or  Japa- 
nese basket  in  the  National  ^Museum  showing 
this  plaited  weft.  The  grass  of  these  Aleutian 
wallets  is  exceedingly  fine,  the  plaiting  done 
with  exquisite  care,  the  stitches  being  often 
as  fine  as  20  to  the  inch,  and  frequently  bits 
of  colored  worsted  are  embroidered  around 
the  upper  portion,  giving  a  pleasing  eftect. 
{Dr.  0.  T.  Mason.) 

Emajagua  (Peru).     See  HihiscHs  tili- 
aveus. 


Embauba  (Braz. 

tat  a. 


See  Cecropia  pel- 


FiG.  51. — Elymvs  arenar'nis. 


Embira  (Braz.).    See  Xylopia  sericea. 

The  term  has  likewise  been  used  in  the  sense  of  bark,  usually  with  an  affix,  as 

EmMra-ocH  {see  Lecytliis).     Sometimes  written  i-'wrira.     jjn/a  means  the  black 

embira.     braiica,  Xylojjia  grandijiora,  and  Daiyhnopsis  hrasiliensis. 

Embirama.    Same  as  the  above,  Xylopia. 
Embirussu  (Braz.).     ^ee  Bombax puhescens. 
Enea  (Venez.).     Typha  august  if olia. 
Enhalus  koenigii. 

A  genus  of  Hydrocharitacew,  this  species  being  found  in  the  Island  of  Celel>es,where 
•'it  is  highly  valued  for  its  fruit  and  for  its  fiber"  {Satwnjnati). 

Entada  scandens.     Legnminosw. 

A  species  of  climbing  plant  native  to  the  Tropics  of  both  hemispheres,  the  tough 
bark  of  which  is  elaiined  to  be  used  in  Ceylon  for  ropes. 

The  pods  of  this  species  often  measure  6  or  8  feet  in  leugth.  The  seeds  are  about 
2  inches  across  by  4  an  inch  thick,  and  have  a  hard,  woody,  and  beautiful  jjolished 


158 


USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


shell,  of  a  dark  browu  or  jjurplisli  color.  In  the  Tropics  the  natives  convert  these 
seeds  into  snuffboxes,  scent  bottles,  spoons,  etc.,  and  in  the  Indian  bazaars  they  are 
used  as  weights.     (J.  Smifh.) 

Entelea  arborescens. 

Exogeu.     TiUacea:     A  small  tree,  5  to  10  feet. 

Found  in  New  Zealand,  where  the  light  wood  of  the  tree  is  used  T)y  the  natives  as 
floats  for  their  nets. 

Ba.st  Fiber. — "From  the  cortical  tiber  are  made  ropes,  cords,  and  fishing  nets" 
{Savorgnan) .  E.  palmata  is  aNew  Holland  species,  also  included  in  the  Manual  Hoepli. 

Envira. 

This  word,  with  an  atfix,  occurs  many 
times  in  a  catalogue  of  Avoods  exhibited 
l)y  the  State  of  Amazon,  Brazil,  at  the 
W.  C.  E.,  1893,  Chicago,  as  a  common 
name  for  certain  trees  that  yield  fiber. 

Examplesare: dianta,  ''furnishes 

a  resistant  fiber,  though  little  used;" 

prvta  (or  the  black  envira),  "the 

twigs  of  young  plants  serve  for  lishing 
poles,  also  has  a  fiber  of  resistant  <iual- 

ity;"  jiixiina  and suruciicii, 

the    same;    taia,    or     tjueimoza, 

•'thick  fibrous  bark;"  de  iijapo, 

'•  inner  bark  holds  the  best  known  fiber 
lor  cords.''     See  Embira. 


Epicampes  macroura. 

lioOT. 


Broom 


Endogen.     (iraminea\    A  grass,  6  to 

7  feet.  (See  fig.  52.) 
Common  and  native  names. — 
Broom  root,  Mexican  whisk,  liaiz 
deZacnton  (^lex.) ;  Chiendent  (Fr.). 
Broom  root,  or  zacatou,  is  a  wild  plant 
which  grows  in  profusion  on  the  high 
plains  included  in  Huamantla,  San  .\n- 
(ires,  Chalchicomula,  Perote,  and  San 
Felipe  del  Obraza,  and  other  localities 
of  Mexico  having  a  cold  climate.  It 
not  only  was  not  cultivated,  but  until 
.its  export  made  it  of  commercial  impor- 
tance proprietors  of  ])lantations  were  at 
considerable  expense  to  rid  their  fields  of  the  weed.  In  1884  it  was  exported  exclu- 
sively from  Vera  Cruz,  and  in  five  years  its  exportation  auiouuted  to  1,763,680  pounds. 
In  1889  it  was  stated  by  M.  Chas.  Baur  that  a  Frenchman  was  producing  zacatou  on 
a  plantation  upon  the  slojies  of  the  Pojjocatapetl  and  the  Yxtaeihuatl,  with  a  pay 
roll  of  .~)00  workmen. 

Structural  Fiuer. — This  is  the  roots  of  the  grass,  which  "are  about  9  inches  to 
a  foot  long,  possessing  a  wavy  character,  and  about  one-sixteeuth  of  an  inch  in  diam- 
eter." When  cleansed  they  are  a  pale  yellow."  The  Department  ^specimens  were 
secured  at  the  Paris  Exp.  Univ.,  1889,  the  W.  C.  E.,  1893,  and  at  the  C.  S.  I.  Exp.,  1895, 
Atlanta,  besides  commercial  samples  from  H.  H.  Crocker  &  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Uses. — It  is  used  by  the  Germans  and  French  to  mix  with  Venetian  whisk,  derived 
from  the  roots  of  Chnjsopogon  grijUus,  for  the  manufacture  of  dandy  brushes,  clothes 


Fl'j.  52 — The  Mfxiuaii  lirooiu  root.  Ejiicuiiijicis 
inacrotira. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  159 

brushes,  carpet  brushes,  and  velvet  brushes,  which  are  shipped  to  this  country  at 
exceedingly  low  prices.  The  broom  root  therefore  appears  to  be  a  cheap  substi- 
tute for  Venetian  whisk,  aud  it  is  said  tliat  when  made  into  brushes  and  thoroughly 
dry  it  is  apt  to  become  lirittle  aud  break  off.  For  this  reason  it  has  never  found 
much  favor  in  England.     (Kew  Bull.,  Dec,  1887.)    Employed  in  the  United  States. 

Epicampes  rigens.     Woou  Eeed  Gkass. 

This  species  is  found  in  California,  Mexico,  and  eastward  in  New  Mexico  to  west- 
ern Texas.  It  is  a  tall-growing  rigid  grass,  pale  yellowish  green  in  color,  growing 
in  tufts  in  the  alkaline  regions.  It  is  used  by  the  Indians  in  Ijasket  manufacture.  See 
account  under  Salix  hisiandra. 

Epilobiiim  angvistifoliuni.     Willow  Herb.     Fikewbed, 

Exogen.     (hiagracea'.     Perennial  herb. 

The  species  of  EpiloVium  are  mostly  pereouial  herbaceous  plants  from  2  to  7  feet 
high,  bearing  pod-like  vessels,  whicli  are  lilled  with  cottony  seeds. 

Surface  Fibj:u. — Samples  of  EpUohhim  down,  or  silk  cotton,  were  received  from 
Utica,  N.  Y.,  by  the  Flax  and  Hemp  Commission  in  1863,  as  specimens  of  a  iiber  that 
might  be  used  as  a  substitute  for  cotton  for  textile  purposes.  The  fiber  was  accom- 
panied by  home-made  samples  of  "thread,"  rope,  and  a  piece  of  quilting  to  illustrate 
the  value  of  the  fiber  as  a  substitute  for  cotton  batting.  The  fibers  are  not  half  the 
length  of  upland  cotton,  or  not  more  than  three-eighths  of  an  iuch,  and  consecpiently 
could  not  be  spun;  and,  even  mixed  with  other  fibers,  would  fly  off  in  the  process 
of  manufacture;  the  fiber  is  soft,  lias  a  silky  luster,  and  is  of  a  creamy  white 
color.  Examined  microscopically,  the  filaments  consist,  like  most  seed  liairs,  of  sin- 
gle cells.  Their  walls  are  very  thin,  malve  sharp  bends,  and  seem  to  be  brittle,  Avith- 
out  the  least  wind  or  twist,  and,  while  resembling  the  down  of  ./scZejj(«.s,  are  of  less 
length,  with  a  rather  strong  longitudinal  marking.  The  si)ecimens  are  only  inter- 
esting in  the  light  of  experiment,  and  from  the  fact  of  their  having  been  jireseuted 
by  the  Flax  aud  Hemp  Commission. 

Bast  Fiker. — The  stalks  yield  a  bast  which,  according  to  K.  H.  Ballinger,  of  Port 
Townsend,  "Wash.,  is  used  by  the  Indians  of  the  Northwest  for  fiber.  The  fiber  is 
doubtless  extracted  in  the  green  state,  for  the  bast  stripped  from  the  dry  stalks  was 
a  most  unpromising  source  of  fiber  material. 

Spon  mentions  fireweed  under  the  name  Ercchihites  liieraci/oliu,  ^nd  says  that  the 
plant  springs  up  as  a  weed  on  recently  cleared  laud  in  America.  "Its  seed  pods  yield 
a  hber  much  resembling  cotton,  but  the  seeds  are  smaller  and  re((nire  no  ginning  to 
sejiarate  them  from  the  boll.  This  fiber  may  be  spun  and  woven,  and  wicks,  ropes, 
yarn,  and  paper  are  said  to  have  been  made  from  it.  The  application  to.paper  mak- 
ing was  especially  successful,  the  product  comparing  well  with  the  silk-made  papers 
of  China  aud  Japan."  I  can  find  no  reference  to  such  use  of  this  jilant  iu  America 
under  the  name  fireweed. 

Eragrostis  cynosuroides.     Dab  (iRAss. 

Endogen.     (irumi)iea\     Perennial  grass. 

Northwestern  Provinces  of  India. 

Fiber. — It  produces  a  fairly  strong  structural  fiber  used  for  nuikiug  ropes.  In 
the  Karuiil  Settlement  Report  it  is  stated  that  the  iiber  is  used  for  the  ropes  of  Per- 
sian wheels,  and  thej^  are  said  to  last  for  three  mouths  or  more.  Stewart  remarks 
that  the  upper  part  of  the  stem  is  in  some  places  used  for  making  the  seives  employed 
in  paper  manufacture. 

Erba  bianca  (It.).     See  Artemisia  vulgaris. 
Erica  spp.    The  Heathworts. 

E.  scoparia  and  E.  vulgaris  (now  Calluna  vulgaris)  are  stated  by  Savorgnan  to  be 
manufactured  into  brooms,  the  stems  being  used. 


160 


USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


Watt  states  tliat  tlie  l»ark 


Eriko  (Yorubaland).     Eaphia  vinij'era. 
Erinocarpus  nimmonii. 

Exogen.     Tiliucew.     A  tree. 
Found  iu  the  Deccan  and  Bombay  I'resideucy,  India, 
is  said  to  yield  an  excellent  fiber  lor  ropes. 

Eriodendron  anfractuosum.     White  Cotton  Tree. 

Exogen.     Mulvaccoc.     Tree,  ."»0  to  60  i'eet. 

Native  and  common  namks.— The  White  Cotton  Tree  (Ind.);  Kapok  lloss  tree 

( Java) ; /mfewZ  (Ceyl. ) ;  Thlnhawh  (WuTm.) ;  Safed-si'inal  {Wind.);  Shwet  simiil 

(Beng.) ;  Ceiba  and  jwchote  (Mex.  and  Cent.  Am.) ;  Pemm  (Maya  of  Yucatan). 

According  to  the  Flora  of  British  India  this  species  occurs  iu  the  forests  of  the 

hotter  parts  of  India  and  Ceylon,  and 
lias  found  its  way  to  South  America,  the 
West  Indies,  and  tropical  Africa. 

SrRiAcE  Fiber. — The  commercial 
kapok  of  Java.  Beautiful  examples  of 
this  substance,  the  most  valual)le  of  all 
the  silk  cottons,  seed  hairs,  or  downs, 
from  the  commercial  standpoint,  were 
secured  from  the  Holland  exhibit,  W. 
C.  E.,  ]893.  though  erroneously  stated  to 
be  the  product  of  Calotropis  gh/antea. 
Kapok,  or  the  floss  from  the  seeds  of  this 
Eriodendron,  "is,  according  to  the  pres- 
ent demand,  a  fiber  of  great  merit.  The 
modern  trade  in  it  was  created  by  the 
Dutch  merchants,  their  supply  being 
drawn  from  Java.  It  is  used  in  uphol- 
stery, being  too  short  a  staple  to  be  spun, 
and.  indeed,  too  brittle  and  elastic.  But 
these  are  the  very  properties  that  com- 
mend the  fioss  to  the  upholsterer.  In 
cushions,  mattresses,  etc.,  its  elasticity 
and  harshness  prevent  its  becoming 
matted  as  in  the  case  with  simal  floss 
from  liomhax  malabaricum,  and  it  is  there- 
fore considerably  superior  to  that  fiber. 
In<leed,  it  is  probable  that  the  even  still 
shorter  stajile  of  ('ovhlosj)er urn  would  in 
time  command  a  better  price  than  that 
of  the  Hiina}.  Like  kapok  it  is  very  elas- 
tic, the  fiber  springing  up  to  its  former 
jiosition  the  moment  the  weight  is  re- 
moved from  the  cushion.  With  Kunal,  on 
the  other  hand,  a  very  short  time  suffices  to  make  a  mattress  assume  permanently 
a  compressed  condition,  in  Avhich  it  occupies,  perhaps,  less  than  half  its  original 
bulk,  and  at  the  same  time  becomes  knotted.  This  necessitates  the  removal  of  the 
stufling  to  be  teased  or  rudely  carded."  ( Jratt.)  While  this  species  of  silk  cotton  is 
well  known  in  tropical  America,  it  does  not  seem  to  have  reached  commercial  impor- 
tance, as  the  only  records  regarding  its  utility  refer  to  household  uses  by  the  natives 
or  country  people  in  the  localities  where  jjroduced.  The  Mexican  siiecimens  in  the 
Department  collection  came  from  the  .State  of  Oaxaca,  and  are  bright,  soft,  and  lus- 
trous with  good  elasticity.  One  of  the  native  Mexican  uses  for  tbis  substance  is  for 
candle  wicks.     See  also  Cottons  (Silk  Cottons)  in  alphabetical  arrangement. 


rio.53.  —Cotton  ftrass,  Enophorum  amjustifoliu in . 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE. 


161 


Since  the  Chicago  Exposition  kapolc  has  come  into  use  commercially  in  this  coun- 
try, being  employed  as  an  ui)holstery  fiber. 
*'  Specimens. — Mus.  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag. 

Eriodendron  samauma. 

Flourishes  along  the  river  banks  of  portions  of  Brazil,  particularly  the  Rio  Negro. 
"It  is  the  tallest  and  most  flourishing  tree  of  the  Amazon  forests,  attaining  over  120 
feet  in  height,  with  a  diameter  difticnlt  to  bo  calculated  in  consequence  of  the 
number  of  hard  roots  that  in  the  form  of  a  star  proceed  fiom  the  base  of  the  trunk. 
When  young  the  tree  has  thorns  that  disappear  when  it  attains  its  full  growth. 
These  thorns  are  used  as  oi-naments  among  some  of  the  Indian  tribes.  The  Indians 
of  the  upper  Purus  weave  and  make  mats  of  the  fiber.''  (From  a  Catalogue  of  Forest 
Products  of  Brazil,  W.  C.  E.,  1893.)  "Silky,.satin-like,  and  of  an  exceeding  tenuity 
and  beauty  are  the  cottons  which  in- 
volve the  seeds  of  the  capsular  fruits 
oimonguha  aiul  samanma — Boinbar  mun- 
g iibo ,  Mart ;  anil  Eriodeiidron  samauma. 
Raw  material  of  great  abundance,  and 
already  utilized  in  Brazil  for  the  manu- 
facture of  costly  threads  and  twists,  it 
contains  an  invaluable  substitute  for 
beaver  for  velvety  and  luxurious  felts." 
(Notes  on  the  State  of  Para. ) 

This  fiber  was  also  met  with  at  the 
Phil.  Int.  Exh.,  1876.  The  tree  was 
stated  to  be  the  largest  in  the  Amazon 
region,  "the  fruit  containing  a  silk 
much  sought  after  for  mattresses"  (De 
Gama). 

Eriolaena  hookeriana. 

It  is  said  that  the  bast  of  this  Indian 
species  of  SfercuUacew  yields  a  good 
fiber,  examples  of  which  were  sent  to 
the  Paris  Exposition,  1878,  and  to  the 
Colonial  and  Indian  Exhibition,  1886. 


Eriophorum  comosum. 
TON  Grass. 


COT- 


Sedge-like 


species 


Fia.  54. — The  lesser  cotton  yrass,  Eriophnriim 
latifidium. 


Endogeu.     Ci/peracecF. 
perennial  herb. 

Common    in    India,    allied 
abound  in  Europe. 

Structural  Fiber. — A  silky  grass, 
the  fibrous  leaves  of  which  are  employed 
locally  in  India  for  twine,  cordage,  and 
even  for  rope  bridges,  though  such  ropes 
do  not  last  over  a  year.  "Thofiber  yielded  by  this  plant  forms  a  small  portion  of  what 
is  exported  to  the  plains  under  the  name  hhdhur"  (  Watt).  The  true  hhdiuris  Ischai- 
mmn  angiistifolium,  which  see.  In  the  Kew  Bulletin  for  July,  1888,  is  found  an 
article  on  the  Iscluvvium,  from  which  it  would  appear  that  E.  comosum  has  been  con- 
founded with  Andropotjon  inrolutus  and  the  true  blidbiir,  and  that  only  a  small  part 
of  the  bulk  of  grass  used  by  the  natives  in  rope  making  is  lioni  7s'.  eomosnm.  Fig.  .53 
illustrates  E.  angnstifolium,  Europe.  For  further  accounts  see  Die.  Ec.  Prod.  Ind., 
Vol.  Ill;  Bull.  Royal  (iardens,  Kew,  July,  1888. 

12247— No,  9 11 


162         USEFUL  FIBER  PLANTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 

Eriophorum  latifolium.     Cotton  (Irass. 

Another  sjiecies  of  Cyperacetv.  Common  in  Europe.  ''The  British  species  all 
grow  on  wet  bogs  or  turfy  moors,  wlu^re  they  frei^uently  iVnm  very  conspicuous 
masses  of  vegetation,  in  consecjuence  of  the  long  showy  sillcy  bristles  of  the  flowers. 
The  English  name  cotton  grass  is  very  expressive,  the  llowers  of  souie  of  the  species 
appearing  lil^e  tufts  of  cotton."  {Dr.  Moore).  The  plant  is  known  in  Italy  as  swamp 
Uax,  Lino  dcUa  paludi.  The  librous  substance  mentioned  us  cotton  has  no  value. 
(See  fig.  54.)     The  leaves  of  E.  caunalnnum  have  been  plaited. 

E.  pohjstachion,  a  British  species  found  in  wet  bogs  and  turfy  moors,  is  mentioned 
iu  the  Official  Guide  Kew  Mus.,  paper  and  cloth  having  been  made  from  it. 

Erizo  (see  Apeiba  Ubourbon). 

Erolin  (see  Uses  of  Flax,  under  Linum  usitatissimum). 

Erythrina  indica.     Indian  Coral  Tree. 

Exogen.  Leguminoscv.  Medium-sized  tree. 
India.  Foothills  of  the  Himalayas ;  Burma.  While  the  plant  is  valued  in  India 
as  yielding  dye,  gum,  medicine,  timber,  and  food,  its  bark  is  also  said  to  yield  a  pale- 
yellow  liber  that  is  excellent  for  cordage.  There  are  several  American  represent- 
atives of  the  genus,  but  they  have  not  been  noted  as  producing  fiber.  Ji.  siiherosa 
is  mentioned  by  Savorgnan  as  yielding  a  iiber  used  for  cordage  and  ship  cables. 

Escoba  (A'euez.)     See  ^iila  rhombifolia. 
Escobadura  (Aig.).     See  Pavonia. 
Escobilla  (Cost.  Ki.).     Sec  ^i^(^(^. 
Esparto,  aiicl  Esparto  grass. 

The of  commerce,  from  Spain  and  Algeria,  Stipa  tenacissima.     The  name  is 

sometimes  given,  also,  to  Lygeum  spartnm ;  chivo,  and  mulato,  Mex., 

Fimbrhtylis  fipadicea. 

Espeletia  sp,    Fraile.ton. 

An  interesting  genus  of  Composite  inhabiting  high  elevations  in  Colombia,  Ecuador, 
and  Venezuela,  often  13,000  to  14,000  feet  above  sea  level.  Some  of  them  are  only  a 
foot  high,  though  the  larger  number  are  taller. 

Strfack  Fiher. — The  plants  are  furnished  with  long,  strap-shaped  root  leaves 
which  are  densely  clothed  with  a  white  or  rust-colored  wool.  Specimens  of  this 
wool  were  exhibited  in  the  Venezuelan  court,  W.  C.  E.,  1893,  under  the  common 
name  Frailejoii.  They  were  collected  from  the  highest  parts  of  the  Cordilleras  of 
Merida.     Refer  to  Cidcilium. 

Esponja.     )  gpo^GE  Cucumber.    See  Luffa. 
Xi sti  apaj a.  ) 

Estopa  (i>iaz.)=:tow. 

Eta,  or  Ita  palm  (see  Mauritia  Jiexuosa), 

Eucalyptus  obliqua.    The  Stringy  Bark.    Gigantic  Gum  Tree. 

Exogen.     Alyrtacew. 
The  trees  of  this  large  genus  abound  in  Australia  and  Tasmania,  though  some  of 
the  species  have  been  distributed  to  other  countries.    Over  100  species  are  recognized, 
and  many  of  the  trees  are  gigantic  in  size,  and  are  exceedingly  valuable  for  their 


DESCRIPTIV^E    CATALOGUE.  163 

timber.  K.  (jlohiilus,  the  bine  gum,  J'J.  (jigantea,  the  stringy  bark,  and  E.  amygdalina, 
tlie  ])e])peniiiiit  tne,  yield  the  best  quality.  Eucalyptus  oil  has  attracted  some 
attention  in  late  years,  particularly  since  the  Philadelphia  exliibition  of  1876. 
JJ.  ylohiihis  is  well  known  through  its  having  been  recommended  for  planting  in 
malarial  districts  of  this  country. 

Uast  Fiueu. — A  specimen  of  the  tow  of  E.  ohliqua  was  received  from  the  Victorian 
collection,  Phil.  Int.  Exh.,  1876,  prejiared  by  Dr.  Guilfoyle.  The  fiber  is  reddish  in 
color,  of  little  strength,  and  has  been  prepared  experimentally.  No  data  accom- 
panird  the  specimen  regarding  its  value,  either  for  fiber  or  for  paper  stock,  though 
t  lie  aborigiu^s  of  Austral  ia.  are  known  to  manufacture  both  canvas  and  cordage  from 
tlio  eucalyptus,  which  would  indicate  not  only  strength,  but  considerabh;  lineness. 
I'iber  marked  Eiicalyptuti  Jissilis  was  also  sent  to  the  Phil.  Int.  Exh.,  1870,  prepared  bj^ 
the  director  of  the  Melbourne  Botanic  Gardens,  Victoria.  ^Vatt. mentions  that  the 
bark  of/:/',  globulus  yields  a  substance  which  has  been  found  suitable  for  paper  mak- 
ing in  India.  Dr.  Ferd.  von  ]\Iueller  also  mentions  the  following  species:  E.gonicaljix, 
white  gum  tree,  good  packing  paper;  E.  hucosylon,  iron  bark  of  New  South  "Wales, 
rough  packing  paper;  E.  loiigifolia,  i)acking  paper;  E.  stuartiana,  packing  paper  and 
pasteboard;  E.  rostrafa,  blotting  and  filter  paper. 

*S])ecime)is. — jMus.  IT.  S.  Dept.  Ag. 

Eugeissona  insignis. 

A  species  of  palm  found  in  Borneo.  "From  the  roots  the  natives  weave  their 
ham]>ers,  baskets,  and  arm  coverings"  (>'^aro7'gnan).  8pon  mentions  E.  tristis,  a 
native  of  Penang,  the  fibrous  leaves  of  which  are  woven  into  mats. 

Eupatoriuni  cannabiniim.     Hemp  Agrimony. 

A  species  of  Compositw,  native  to  Europe,  found  growing  in  wet  meadows;  called 
wild  hemp,  or,  in  Italy,  Canapa  salratica.  *'The  stalk  yields  material  for  cords,"'  but 
of  slight  value.  There  are  many  representatives  of  the  genus  in  North  America,  but 
none  is  recognized  as  the  source  of  a  useful  textile. 

Euphorbia  palustris. 

Exogen.     Enpliorhiacew. 

Eeprosentatives  of  the  genus  are  found  in  many  parts  of  the  world,  some  of  the 
species  that  are  cultivated  in  greenhouses  being  remarkable  for  the  brilliant  scarlet 
bracts  of  the  involucre.  Some  of  the  species  are  used  in  pharmacy,  and  the  milky 
juice  of  many,  after  drying,  can  be  used  as  a  gum  or  resin,  though  exceedingly 
acrid. 

FiHKR. — In  the  Italian  work  of  M.  A.  Savorgnan  the  species  named  is  stated  to 
grow  in  marshy  jdaces  and  "  to  furnish  textile  liber  of  very  line  ([uality,  but  difficult 
to  extract;"  should  be  regarded  as  a  curious  rather  than  a  useful  fiber. 

Euterpe  acuminata. 

Endogen.     Falma'. 

The  palms  of  the  genus  Eiifcrpc  are  of  ''  extremely  graceful  habit,  having  slender, 
almost  cylindrical  stems,  sometimes  nearly  100  feet  in  height,  surmounted  by  a  tuft 
of  pinnate  leaves,  the  leaflets  of  which  are  narrow,  very  regular  and  close  together, 
and  generally  hang  downward.  The  bases  of  the  leafstalks  are  dilated,  and  form 
cylindrical  sheaths  round  a  considerable  portion  of  the  upper  part  of  the  stem,  giving 
it  a  woolen  appearance.  Ten  species  are  known,  all  natives  of  the  forests  of  tropical 
South  America,  where  they  grow  together  in  large  masses;  some  inhabiting  moist, 
swampy  places  on  the  banks  of  rivers,  and  others  extending  a  considerable  height  up 
the  sides  of  mountains." 

Stkuctur.vl  Fihek. — Specimens  of  liher  from  the  leaves  of  this  palm  were  cata- 
logued m  the  exhibit  of  Costa  Kica,  W.  C.  E.,  1893,  from  Talmarca,  under  the  desig- 


164 


USEFUL  FIBER  PLANTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


nation  "Fihras pahniche  oscirro,  Enocarpns  utilis"  (::=  (Evocarpus).     In  my  examination 
of  the  Costa  Kican  fibers  for  award  the  specimen  was  not  found. 

Euterpe  oleracea  et  sp.  div. 

Dorca  mentions  three  species  that  inhabit  Pern,  E.  oleracea,  E.  edulis,  and  E.  ensi- 
formis,  all  of  wliich  yield  a  fiber  nsefnl  for  ropes  and  coarse  textures.  Orton  men- 
tions E.  oleracea  as  occurring  on  the  Amazon,  known  as  the  Jiissareira.  Agassiz  refers 
to  a  Brazilian  species  as  the  Asi^ais,  and  the  Treasury  of  Botany  gives,  as  the  com- 
mon name  of  I'J.  edulis,  "The  Assai  Palm  of  Para."  The 
))everagemanufixctured  from  this  species  is  also  known 
as  ^issai.     (See  fig.  55.) 

Evening  primrose  fiber  (see  Gaum). 

False    sisal    hemp  (Fla.).      See    Agave   de- 
cipicns. 

Falseh  (Pers.).     See  Grewia. 

Fatsia  papyrifera.  The  Rice  Paper  Plant. 

Syu.  AraJia  papyrifera. 

Endogen.  Araliacew.  A  small  tree. 
"  This  plant  grows  in  the  deep,  swampy  forests  of  the 
Island  of  Formosa,  and  apparently  there  only,  forming 
a  small  tree,  branching  in  the  njiper  part,  the  younger 
portions  of  the  stem,  together  with  the  leaves  and  inflo- 
rescence, covered  with  copious  stellate  down.  The  stems 
are  filled  with  pith  of  very  fine  texture,  and  white  as 
snow,  which,  when  cut,  forms  the  artich^  known  as  rice 
paper.  Large  quantities  of  the  stems  are  'taken  in 
native  crafts  from  Formosa  to  Chinchew,  where  they  are 
cut  into  thin  sheets  for  the  manufacture  of  artificial 
flowers.'  A  lengthened  account  of  this  interesting  plant 
will  be  found  in  Hooker's  Journal  of  Botany."  {Dr. 
Thomas  Moore.) 


Fern. 

Tree 
Hair  - 


Hei'Cibotinm,  sourceof  Pulu  fiber;  Maiden 


Fig.  55.— The  Assai,  EtUerpf 
oleracea. 


—  {see  .fdiauliim}. 

Fe-ru  (Afr.).     Silk   Cottou. 


See   Cochloupcr 


mum  tinctorium. 
Jjaportea  crcnulata. 


Fever  Nettle. 
Fiber. 

See  Introduction.  Tlie  classes  of  fibers  recognize<l  in  this  work  are  Bast,  Struc- 
tural, Surface,  AVoody,  and  Pseudo-fiber. 

Fibras  palmiche  oscuro  (Co.st.  Ki.).     See  Euterpe. 
Fibrilia. 

A  textile  material  made  by  "cottonlzing"  the  fibers  of  flax,  hemp,  jute,  China 
grass,  and  similar  vcgetabh;  substances,  as  a  substitute  for  cottou.  Fibrilia  from 
flax  is  a  form  of  "  flax  cotton  "  (so  called).  The  account  of  an  inquiry  by  the  United 
States  Government  into  the  practicability  of  the  establishment  of  a  "flax-cotton" 
industry  will  be  found  in  the  Report  of  the  Flax  and  Hemp  Commission  of  1863 
(U.  S.  Dept.  Ag.,  Washington,  1865),  but  now  (uit  of  ])rint.  See  Fibrilia,  L.  Burnett 
&  Co.,  Boston,  1861.     See  also  Uses  of  Flax  uuder  Linum  usHaiissimum. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE. 


165 


Ficus  spp.    The  Fig,  etc. 

This  genus  of  Moracar  comprises  over  150  species,  and  a  vast  number  of  cultivated 
varieties,  including  the  lig  of  commerce  known  to  botanists  as  Ficus  carica.  Tlio 
species  of  Ficus  abound  either  wild  or  cultivated  throiiglioutthe  warmer  ])ortions  of 
tlie  globe.     (See  fig.  56,  form  of  leaf  of  i'\  rcUgiosa.) 

There  is  scarcely  a  collection  of  tropical  fibers  that  does  not  contain  specimens 
labeled  "i<7c/(v,"  though,  unfortunately,  it  has  been  so  difficult  in  many  instances  to 
trace  the  botanical  species  that  we  do  not  know  them.  No  less  than  nine  species  are 
named  in  Beruardin's  Catalogue  of  Fibrous  Plants,  among  Avhich  are  F.  laurifolia, 
Antilles;  I",  macrophiilla,  New  South  Wales,  and  /'".  rubra,  Martiiiicjue,  with  the  spe- 
cies yielding  the  lig,  and  another  the  caoutchouc  of  Assam,  representing  species 
abounding  in  southern  Europe,  Africa,  the  warm  parts  of  India,  and  the  isles  of  the 
Southern  Ocean.  Koyle  allndes  to  the  genus  and  says  "  it  is  probable  that  the  bark 
of  some  of  the  species,  like  that  of  the 
pai)er  mulberry,  may  be  converted  into 
half-stuff,  as  the  bark  of  one  species  is 
used  for  paper  making  in  the  island  of 
Ceylon."  The  Museum  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  con- 
tains many  examples  of  iibcr  and  manu- 
facture from  species  of  Ficus  that  are 
unidentified.  In  Dorca's  manuscript  list 
of  Peruvian  fibers,  Ficus  deudroneid a,  the 
Mafapalo  (doubtless  F.  dendrocida),  is  said 
to  be  used  by  the  Indians,  who  make  gar- 
ments from  the  bark.  He  also  mentions 
the  JJuyiciov,  F.  r/ii/antca,  from  which  is 
made  various  kinds  of  lilaments. 

In  the  Manual  Hoei)li  three  species  are 
mentioned,  as  follows:  /'.  indica,  India 
and  New  Caledonia,  the  bark  of  which  is 
used  for  cordage;  F.  proJixa,  "a  sacred 
tree  among  the  natives  of  Oceanica,  tlie 
fiber  from  the  bark  being  used  for  making 
clothing  and  textures  of  all  kinds ;  highly 
valued  as  an  industrial  plant,"  commonly 
called  the  Sacred  Fig ;  the  bark  of  F.  rcVt- 
giosa  is  used  in  New  Caledonia  for  cord- 
age. The  fiber  of  several  Indian  species 
is  mentioned  in  the  Die.  Ec.  Prod.  Ind., 
Vol.  Ill,  as  follows:  F.  cunia  bark  used 
to  tie  the  rafters  of  native  houses,  and 
affords  a  strong  fiber  useful  for  ropes; 
F.  liispida,  fiber  jirepared  from  the  bark,  in  Bombay,  used  for  tying  bundles;  F. 
infectoria,  fiber  used  for  ropes;  in  Burma  a  fiber  is  extracted  from  the  bark  of  i^.  rcH- 
f/ioso,  which  was  formerly  made  into  paper  and  used  in  umbrellas.  Liotard  also 
mentions  this  species  as  an  India  paper  jilant.  Ficus  (irapohy)  is  included  in  the 
list  of  siiccies  of  fiber  plants  of  Argentina  furnished  by  Dr.  Niederlein. 

In  the  collection  of  Brazilian  fibers  (Phil.  Int.  Exh.,  1876)  there  was  one  specimen 
that  closely  resembled  the  fiber  of  liroussonetia  papurifera,  which  was  obtained  from  a 
specimen  of  "  wild  fig"  iound  growing  on  the  Doce  River,  the  milk  of  which  is  said  to 
contain  India  rubber.  Dr.  Nicolan  J.  Moreira,  reporting  on  fibers  from  Minas  Geraes, 
in  a  little  brochure  of  16  pages,  thus  writes  of  the  plant  producing  these  specimens : 

The  trunk  leaves,  or  stalk  leaves  (i.  e.,  layers  of  bast),  although  they  can  not  be 
separated  into  distinct  fibers,  nevertheless  offer  an  interest  not  less  industrial.  By 
soaking,  the  leaves  come  out  whole ;  when  introduced  between  iron  cylinders,  in 


Fk;.  50 — Leaves  of  Ficus  reliijiosa. 


166  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

consequence  of  the  compression  suffered,  they  become  very  thin,  yet  preaerviug  a 
remarkable  width  and  lenj^th.  lu  this  condition,  to  say  nothing  of  tlieir  bein^  objects 
of  curiosity,  it  is  possible  to  transform  them  into  thick  garments  for  country  labor- 
ers or  otlier  Avorkmen.  *  *  *  Without  further  preparation,  h-tters  and  official 
documents  arc  written  on  the  precious  bark  of  the  rich  tree  of  the  Doce  Kiver.  JL 
Leverino  Costa  Leitc  has  taken  from  one  tree  275  cavados  (206  yards)  of  bark  sheets 
three-fourths  of  a  yard  wide. 

Ficus  benghalensis.     The  Banyan  Tree. 

Endogen.      Urtivavea'.     Large  spreading  trci;,  70  to  100  feet. 

India  and  tropical  Africa. 

Many  of  the  species  of  this  genus  send  out  aerial  roots  from  the  branches,  and  these, 
descending  to  the  soil,  form  lesser  trunks,  so  that  the  tree  covers  a  large  area. 

FiUER. — A  coarse  rope  is  prepared  froiu  the  bark  and  from  the  aerial  roots.  Paper 
is  also  reported  to  have  been  formerly  largely  prepared  in  Assam  from  the  bark,  and 
to  a  small  extent  it  is  still  so  prepared  at  Pakhimpore  and  in  licllary  iu  Madras. 
This  fiber  was  used  by  the  Sikhs  as  a  slow  match.  The  length  of  the  ultimate  fibers 
has,  by  Cross,  Hevaii,  and  King,  been  ascertained  to  be  1  to  3  millimeters.  The  fibers 
obtained  from  the  genus  Firim  contain  from  40  to  60  per  cent  of  cellulose,  and  under 
hydrolysis  lose  from  20  to  10  per  cent  of  their  weight.  Chemically  they  are  there- 
fore worthless  fibers.     (Jfatt.) 

Fimbristylis  complanata. 

This  species  1)el(>ngs  to  a  genus  of  cyperaceous  plants  which  embraces  u]iward  of 
200  species,  chiefiy  natives  of  warm  countries. 

The  culms  of  7'.  cowjjZaiia/a  have  been  used  iji  Ceylon  for  making  mats;  the  Kew 
Mus.  collection  contains  a  mat  and  rice  plate  from  this  species,  and  samples  of  (Inme- 
lotte  fiber,  and  paper  pulp  and  paper  from  the  stems  of  F.  spadicea  sent  from  Vera 
Cruz.     Mexican  name,  E8parto  chino  and  Esparto  midato. 

Fique. 

In  the  collection  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  there  is  a  beau- 
tiful series  of  ropes,  sandals,  etc.,  collected  iu  Ecuador,  labeled  with  this  name. 
Dr.  Ernst  states  that  Fiqnr  is  the  same  as  Cocuiza  (Venezuela),  Fiircraa  yigantea, 
which  see. 

Firevreed  (U.  S.).     See  UpiloMum  anfjustifoUmn. 
Fitzroya  patagonica. 

Exogen.     Conifera'.     Cone-bearlug  tree,  100  feet. 
This  is  an  evergreen  tree,  found  in  South  America  from  Chile  to  Patagonia.    Accord- 
ing to  Spun,  its  outer  bark  yields  a  fibrous  substance  used  for  calking  ships.     "The 
tree,  which  is  found  in  the  mountains  of  I'atagonia,  bears  the  ordinary  winters  of 
Britain"  (Prof.  J.  II.  Balfour). 

Flachs  f(Iei.)  =  Flax. 
Flax. 

Ancient (see  Linum  angnstifolium);  for  linen.   Lininn  vsifaiissinvim ; 

False ,  (ameUna  sativa;  Lily,  DlaneUa  tasmaniat ;  New  Zealand 


rhorminm  tenas ;    Mountain  (see  CordiiUne) ;   Rocky  Mountain .  I.hiiim 

letcixii ;    Travancore  (see  C  ratal  aria) ;   Swamp  ,  Eriophonim  latifoHiivi. 

For  references  to  "fiax  cotton"  and  "flax  wool,"  see  Uses  of  Flax,  under  Linum 
usitatissimitm. 

Foetid  aloe  (Maiirit.).     Furcnvd  f/igautra. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  167 

Fomes  fomentarius.     .Vmadou  polypoke. 

This  is  a  purasitic  fungus  on  oak,  beech,  birch,  and  ash  trees,  from  whieh  is  pre- 
pared the  amadou  or  German  tinder.  I'ileus  bracket-like,  lioof-sliaped,  4  to  7  inches 
across,  3  to  5  inches  thick  at  tlio  base,  attenuated  toward  the  margin,  smooth,  dis- 
tinctly concentrically  furrowed,  dingy  brown,  becoming  hoary;  cutich^  thick,  liard, 
persistent;  context  rather  soft,  compact,  spongy,  foxy  rust  color;  tubes  very  long — 
^  to  2  inches;  pores  minute,  subangular,  ash  colored. 

PSEUDO  FiiJKR. — While  it  is  hardly  to  be  placed  in  the  category  of  fibrous  sub- 
stances, slices  of  the  fungus  have  been  made  into  caps,  table  mats,  artificial  ilowers, 
etc.,  specimens  of  which  are  preserved  in  the  Kew  Mus. 

This  species  and  other  large  Foh/porew  may  be  treated  to  form  "  Sponglo  lUjnine," 
or  "soft  amadou,"  which  has  the  appearance  of  a  pliable  leather  and  has  been  found 
valuable  for  chest  iirotectors,  hat  linings,  and  various  household  purposes.  The  large 
pieces  have  even  been  sewed  together  for  making  dresses  and  coarse  garments  by  some 
of  the  poorer  inhabitants  of  Austria  and  Hungary.  P.adham  (Esculent  Funguses  of 
England,  1863)  related  that  several  eminent  surgeons  of  London  used  it  extensively 
in  their  practice,  preferring  it  to  chamois  skin  on  account  of  its  greater  elasticity. 
In  vVmerica  it  is  largely  employed  by  dentists  as  an  absorbent.  Salmasius  describes 
the  process  of  its  preparation  for  soft  amadou.  Tlio  fungus  is  first  boiled,  then 
beaten  to  pieces  in  a  mortar,  next  hammered  out  to  depri\-e  it  of  its  woody  fibers, 
and,  after  being  steeped  in  a  strong  solution  of 'nitrate  of  potash,  dried  in  the  sun. 
{B.  T.  GaUotvaij.)  F.  fomentarius  has  been  employed  from  remote  antiquity  for  the 
development  and  preservation  of  fire. 

In  the  manuscript  notes  furnished  me  by  Mr.  Galloway  mention  is  also  made  of 
D(vdaliaqi(ercina,yvhich.  is  common  on  oak  stumps,  butwhich  Hartig  (Diseases  of  Trees) 
suspects  to  be  also  parasitic.  Its  preparation  for  tinder  is  accomplished  after  being 
beaten  out  and  steeped  in  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  potassa.  F.  hjuiarius,  the  fire 
fungus,  is  also  mentioned,  prepared  in  the  same  manner  as  J>.  qiiercina.  This  is  the 
parasitic  growth  most  frequently  met  with  upon  dicotyledonous  trees. 

Mr.  Galloway  states  that  the  Ehi^omorplui'  have  the  strongest,  coarsest  fibers  of  any 
growths,  but  no  record  appears  of  their  having  been  utilized  in  any  manner.  It  would 
seem,  perhaps,  not  impossible  that  the  fine  felt-like  substance  of  Zasmirdium  ccJ- 
lare  Ft.,  the  golden  fibers  of  Ozonium  auricomum  Lk.,  and  other  filamentous  mycelial 
growths  might,  under  stress  of  necessity,  be  made  into  fabrics  of  some  economic  value. 

Formio  (Span.).     IS'ew  Zealand  Flax.     See  Fhormium. 
Forster's  palm  lily  (Austr.).     Cordyline  australis. 
Fraxinus  nigra.     IsTortheen  Swamp  Ash. 

Exogen.     Oleaccw.     A  tree,  75  to  90  feet. 

Common  names. — Black  ash,  hoop  ash,  ground  ash,  northern  swamp  ash. 

Southern  Newfoundland,  northern  shores  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  to  DehxAvare,  the 
mountains  of  Mrginia,  southern  Illinois,  and  northwestern  Arkansas.  The  wood  is 
used  for  interior  finish,  fencing,  barrel  hoops,  cabinetmaking,  etc. 

Woody  Fiber. — The  wood  is  easily  separated  into  thin  layers,  and  on  this  account 
is  largely  employed  as  material  for  basket  manufacture.  Splint  basket  material  is 
also  made  from  white  ash,  white  oak,  hickory,  basswood,  etc.  The  difierent  kinds 
of  wood  are  prepared  in  the  same  manner.  In  preparing  the  wood  for  basket  mak- 
ing the  log  is  split  as  near  the  eye  as  possible,  shaved  to  the  proper  thickness,  pounded 
with  a  heavy  hammer  on  an  anvil ;  the  stick  is  then  held  in  such  a  position  across  the 
anvil  that  by  pounding  it  the  grains  are  loosened  so  that  they  can  be  pulled  apart; 
these  strips  are  then  smoothed  and  braided  on  blocks,  which,  after  being  dried,  are 
tightened  and  are  ready  for  the  rims. 


168  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

Freycinetia  banksii. 

Eudogeii.     randanaceo,. 

Tliis  genus  of  plants  is  native  to  the  Indian  Arcliipelago,  Norfolk  Island,  and  New 
Zealand,  and  is  distinguished  by  having  the  haliit  of  growth  of  Pandanus. 

"The  fiber  will  probably  be  found  valuable  for  paper  making"  (Spon).  The  specios 
is  not  incladfd  in  the  Australasian  lists  of  Dr.  (iuilfoyle,  but  is  included  on  the  above 
authority. 

Furcraea  cubensis.     The  Cajun. 

Endogeu.     AmarylUdavea^.     Aloe-like  leaf  cluster. 

Natiyk  and  common  namks. — Cajun  (Cent.  Am.);  Silk  grass  (Jam.) ;  Tobago 
silk  grass  and  Langue  Bcriif  (Trin.).     (See  Silk  Grass  in  Catalogue.) 

This  plant  is  a  native  of  tropicnl  America,  but  has  been  distribr^ed  to  and  is  culti- 
vated in  many  tropical  countries. 

In  this  species  the  leaves  are  generally  armed  with  long  spines.  Dr.  Parry  found 
the  plant  growing  common  in  Santo  Domingo  in  1871,  and  brought  back  with  him 
to  the  Department  samples  of  the  fibers.  It  is  also  common  in  .Jamaica,  and  it  is  con- 
sidered that  there  would  be  no  difficulty  in  establisliing  it  in  cultivation  for  its  fiber. 
Dr.  Schott  (IT.  S.  Ag.  Rept.,  1869)  describes  it  as  it  grows  in  Yucatan,  placing  it  in 
the  list  of  "sisal  hemps."  It  dift'ers  from  its  congener,  F.  giganiea,  in  having  no  dis- 
tinct trunk.  The  leaves  are  3  to  •')  feet  long  and  .">  inches  wide  in  the  middle,  bright 
green  in  color,  rigid  habit,  and  are  armed  with  lieavy  spines.  Dr.  Schott  says  that 
the  leaves  of  Yucatan  i)lant8  are  I  to  5  feet  long.  It  is  growing  in  many  places  in 
Trinidad,  being  found  at  the  Bocas  Islands,  the  Maracas  valley  (where  the  fine 
variety  imrmis  is  found),  and  is  cultivated  at  Brechin  Castle  estate  and  at  the  con- 
vict depot  of  Chaguanas.  Consequent  upon  the  anticipated  demand  for  plants,  many 
thousands  were  grown  in  the  Botanic  Garden  a  few  years  ago,  some  20,000  plants 
having  been  produced. 

SxRUfTrKAL  FiUEU. — This  is  white,  strong,  and  bright  looking,  and  yields  at  the 
rate  of  2.0.5  to  3.15  per  cent  by  weight  of  green  leaves.  From  experiuK-nts  carried 
on  at  Jamaica  under  a  committee  appointed  by  Government  it  was  found  that  leaves 
of  l'\  cuhensis  weighing  36G^  pounds  yielded  28  pounds  of  green  fiber,  which,  when 
perfectly  dry,  weighed  7^  pounds.  This  was  at  the  rate  of  2.05  i)er  cent  by  weight 
of  green  leaf.  Value  of  liber:  (a)  £28,  good  quality,  but  might  be  whiter;  {i) 
fairly  clean,  fair  color,  value  about  £28  per  ton;  {<■)  superior  to  sisal  and  worth  £27 
per  ton — a  good  iiber,  not  quite  sufficiently  white  in  the  center.     (Dr.  Morris.) 

Dr.  Fawcett  states  that  the  fiber  of  this  species  may  8upj)ly  a  small  part  of  the 
sisal  hemp  of  conmierce.  In  Dr.  Schott's  article  in  the  Annual  Report  of  this  Depart- 
ment for  1869,  the  "  cajun,"  or  F.  ciiheims,  is  figured  opposite  to  page  259.  This 
shows  that  the  i)lant  produces  a  vast  number  of  narrow  leaves,  a  peculiarity  noted 
in  the  plants  mistaken  for  sisal  in  Florida,  and  at  the  time  of  my  visit  I  believed 
that  it  was  growing  abundantly  in  Florida,  and  was  the  species  mistaken  for  the 
true  sisal  hemp,  both  by  the  Bahama  and  Florida  cultivators. 

The  extraction  of  fiber  from  this  plant,  which  grows  so  readily  in  Tobago  and 
Trinidad,  was  also  tried  by  means  of  the  Death  and  Kennedy  machine,  and  was  cer- 
tainly the  most  promising  of  the  plants  under  trial,  as  it  gave  the  greatest  output  of 
fiber  of  first-class  cjuality.  From  the  ease  with  which  it  glows  it  is  doubtful  if  any 
other  plant  will  be  able  to  be  grown  in  competition  with  it  for  fiber  production ;  and 
the  fiber  company  of  Tobago  are  sanguine  as  to  their  ultimate  success  with  their 
indigenous  plant  in  preference  to  the  imported  sisal,  and  it  would  appear  that  their 
reasons  are  sound ;  the  fiber  itself  is  first-class,  the  plant  is  easily  and  cheaply  grown, 
land  is  easily  available,  and  the  want  of  an  economic  machine  is  the  only  difficulty, 
and  one  which  we  all  hope  will  soon  be  overcome.  The  plant  is  being  largely  culti- 
vated at  the  convict  depot,  Chaguanas,  and  large  numbers  have  been  planted  on  the 
Carrera's  Island  prison  lands,  under  the  supervision  of  Lionel  M.  Eraser,  esq.,  super- 
intendent of  prisons.     (An.  Rept.  Roy.  Bot.  Garden,  Trinidad,  1890.) 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  169 

Furcraea  gigantea.    Giant  Lily. 

Native  and  commox  names. — The  Cahouya  ov  Cahuja{Cent.  Am.  andW.  Tnd.) ; 
Cocui:a  aud  Fiqite  (Yene/..);  Pita  and  Pita  flojd  {Cost.  Ri.);  Peleria  (I>raz.); 
Aloes  vert  aud  fti'tid  aloe  (Maiirit.);  giaut  fiber  lily  (Austr.).  The  fiber  is 
known  commertially  as  Mauritius  hemp.  Fig.  1,  PI.  VII,  is  a  greenhouse  plant 
of  this  species  growing  in  the  United  States  Botanical  Garden. 

The  plant  is  closely  allied  to  the  agaves  and  is  found  throughout  tropical  America. 
It  grows  in  Algeria  aud  Natal,  and  is  cultivated  in  St.  Helena  and  Mauritius.  It  has 
also  been  introduced  into  India,  Ceylon,  and  Australia.  It  is  of  moderately  quick 
growth  and  attains  great  perfection.  Like  the  agaves,  these  plants  have  long-lived 
massive  stems,  immense  fleshy  leaves,  and  produce  their  flowers  after  many  years  upon 
tall  central  stems,  in  pyramidal,  candelabra- like  form. 

Structural  Fiber. — The  fiber  very  closely  resembles  the  sisal  hemp  of  commerce, 
and  doubtless  is  often  so  called.  Dr.  Ernst,  in  the  catalogue  of  the  Venezuelan 
department  (Phil.  Int.  Exh.,  1876),  states  that  the  fiber  is  very  strong  and  is  used 
for  cordage  and  gunny  bags.  It  is  prepared  in  the  same  manner  as  sisal  hemp. 
Samples  of  the  Venezuelan  specimens  are  dyed  in*  aniline  to  show  that  it  will  take 
color. 

The  plant  is  grown  largely  for  liber  at  St.  Helena  and  Mauritius,  aud  in  the 
London  market  the  product  is  known  as  Mauritius  hemp.  In  the  Kew  Bulletin  for 
March,  1887,  the  plant  grown  in  Africa  is  described  as  having  leaves  4  to  7  feet  long, 
4  to  6  inches  broad  at  the  middle,  unarmed,  light  green  in  color,  channeled  down 
the  face. 

F.  gigantea  is  supposed  to  have  been  introduced  from  South  America  to  Mauri- 
tius about  1790^  It  has  evidently  found  a  congenial  home  there,  for  without  any 
effort  on  the  part  of  mau  it  has  covered  waste  lands  and  adandoned  sugar  estates  to 
such  an  extent  as  to  lay  the  foundation  of  a  considerable  filjer  industry.  The 
leaves  are  often  8  feet  in  length  and  from  6  to  7  inches  in  breadth.  The  pulp  of  the 
leaves  when  crushed  gives  off"  a  strong  pungent  odor,  and  hence  this  species  is  some- 
times called  the  fcvtid  aloe.  The  juice  is  strongly  corrosive  and  soon  acts  upon 
wrought  iron;  it  is  said  to  produce  less  effect  on  cast  iron,  while  it  is  practically 
inoperative  on  brass  and  copper.  The  plant  grows  in  all  soils  aud  up  to  an  elevation 
of  1,800  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  It  has.  however,  more  generally  dissem- 
inated itself  on  the  lowlands  near  the  coast  and  on  a  few  of  the  al)andoned  sugar 
estates  that  have  become  too  dry  for  cane  cultivation.  A  fiber  industry  was  started 
at  Mauritius  about  12  years  ago,  when  the  wet  or  retting  system  was  tried.  The  cut 
leaves  were  first  passed  through  the  rollers  of  a  sugar  mill  and  steeped  in  water  for 
some  days.  The  fiber  was  then  washed  and  beaten  out  by  hand  in  running  water. 
This  process  was  soon  found  unsuitable,  as  the  fiber  was  discolored  and  rendered 
"weak,  and  cousequently  commanded  comparatively  low  prices.  Attention  was  then 
directed  to  extraction  by  means  of  gratteuse  or  scotching  machines.  Many  machines 
have  since  been  tried,  and  it  is  believed  that  the  purely  mechanical  difficulties  con- 
nected witli  cleaning  the  fiber  have  been  for  the  most  part  overcome.  The  amount 
of  fiber  obtained  from  leaves  of  the  Aloes  vert  was  at  the  rate  of  3  per  cent  by 
weight  of  green  leaves.  The  yield  of  fiber  was  at  tlie  rate  of  about  1^  tons  per  acre. 
A  set  of  six  machines  driven  by  a  steam  engine  of  8  horsepower  (nominal)  cleaned 
1,155  pounds  of  fiber  per  day,  which  is  at  the  rate  of  193  pounds  for  each  machine 
per  day.     {Dr.  Morris.) 

The  production  of  this  fiber  is  very  great,  especially  in  Bargiusimeto,  Coro,  and 
the  State  Los  Audas,  where  it  is  known  under  the  name  of /((/Me.  It  is  used  prin- 
cipally in  the  manufacture  of  material  for  bags,  horse  blankets,  fish  nets,  halters, 
etc.  But  it  should  be  produced  in  even  greater  quantities  to  enable  us  to  establish 
manufactories  for  cordage  and  bags  necessary  for  the  handling  of  the  annual  crop 
of  grains,  as  these  articles  are  exported  more  and  more  extensively  every  year,  prin- 
cipally to  the  United  States  and  Germany.     {Dr.  A.  Ernst.) 


170  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

Furcraea  longaeva. 

"This  species  iiiiiabits  the  mountains  of  Guatemala  and  Mexico  at  about  1,000  feet. 
It  is  recorded  as  fiber  producing."  (Spon.)  I  have  not  met  with  species  in  any 
Central  and  South  Amcriciin  collections,  or  noted  any  mention  of  it  in  the  fiber 
literature  of  tropical  America  that  has  come  under  my  notice. 

Furcreea  tuberosa.     Cajbulla. 

A  sample  of  this  fiber,  somewhat  resembling  Sisal  lienip,  was  exhibited  in  the 
Costa  Rican  <olle{tion,  W.  C.  E.,  1893.     It  is  employed  as  a  textile. 

Fucus  (see  under  Macrocystis). 

Furquina  (clothing),     (-olombia.     See  Couratari. 

Gahnia  beecheyi.     Uki  of  Hawaii. 

A  f-enus  of  Cjiperacco'  the  species  of  which  are  fouTid  in  eastern  tropical  Asia  and 
Polynesia,  New  Zealand,  Tahiti,  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  etc.  G.  heicheyi  is  a  grass 
found  at  lower  elevations— from  1,000  to  3,000  feet— in  Hawaii  and  Oahu.  The  stems 
are  used  to  make  cords. 

G-ahnia  radula. 

A  native  Australian  species  of  Ci/peracew  commonly  hnown  as  the  Black  Reed. 
Specimens  of  the  fibrous  material  were  secured  at  the  Phil.  Int.  Exh.,  187<i,  prepared 
by  Dr.  Guilfoyle.  The  label  reads :  "  This  coarse-growing  sedge  can  be  had  in  enor- 
mous quantities  throughout  the  colony  (Victoria).  It  is  extensively  used  by  the 
settlers  as  a  thatching  material."  As  a  fiber  it  has  no  value,  and  it  is  doubtful  if  it 
would  make  good  paper.     The  species  is  noted  in  Dr.  (aiilfoyle's  Australasian  list. 

Galvan.     Venetian  name  of  An(1roj)ogon  grylhis. 

Gamalote  (Veuez.).     See  Panicuvi  myunis. 

Gamalotte  (Mex.)     See  Fimhristylis  compJanata. 

Gampo  (Si)an.).     See  Hibisais  cannahinufi. 

Ganpi  fiber  (Jap.).     See  Wihstramia. 

Gas  (Ceyl.)^a  tree. 

Gaura  parviflora. 

This  species,  belonging  to  the  Evening  Primrose  family,  was  sent  to  the  Depart- 
ment from  Boi.se,  Idaho,  as  a  fiber  plant.  The  stalks  were  examined,  but  the  fiber 
layer  was  found  to  be  too  thin  to  make  the  plant  of  any  value  whatever  as  a  textile. 
Stalks  of  the  Evening  Primrose  have  been  received  from  other  inquiring  corre- 
spondents.    It  is  therefore  included  in  this  list. 

Gayumba  (Span.).     See  Spartiuni  junceum. 

Gebang  palm  (Java).     Corypha  gehanga. 

Gelso  reale  (It.).     Morns  alba. 

Genet  d'Espagne  (Fr.).     Spart'mm  junceum. 

Genipa  americana.     Huitoc  of  Peru. 

This  species  belongs  to  the  Cinchona  family,  the  tree  being  found  in  the  American 
tropics.  G.  americana  produces  the  Genipap  fruit,  which  is  about  the  size  of  an 
orange,  and  of  agreeable  flavor. 


DESCRirTIVE    CATALOGUE.  171 

Fir.Ei:. — The  bark  of  this  tree,  known  in  Peru  as  the  Vmuayaiiua,  or  Huitoc, 
"furnishes  a  fiber  that  is  used  by  the  Indians  for  makini;-  rou.nh  clothinj;"  (Dorca). 

Geonoma  baculifera.     The  Ubim. 

A  genus  of  tropical  American  palms.  The  species  occurs  in  British  Guiana,  where 
it  is  used  as  a  thatch  material. 

Where  tlie  iroolic  {Manlcarla  saccifera)  does  not  grow  the  small,  transparent  leaves 
of  deal ihaiini  {(1.  hacuUfera)  afford  a  thatch  which  is  in  one  respect  still  more  con- 
venient than  iroolic.  They  are  gathered  and  fastened  together  by  their  stalks  so 
as  to  hang  close  together,  and  with  their  sides  overlapping,  from  a  long  lath  cut 
from  the  stem  of  the  Booba  ])alm,  Iriartca  exorrliiza.  8uch  rows  of  leaves,  10  or  12 
feet  long,  and  2  or  3  deep,  are  arranged  one  above  and  overlapping  each  other. 
The  advantage  is  easy  removal  to  tie  upon  a  new  framework.     {E.  F.  im  Tlmrn.) 

Specimens  of  thatch  material  from  an  unidentified  species  of  Geonoma  are  exhib- 
ited in  the  Kew  Mus.,  used  by  the  Arawak  Indians  of  British  Guiana.  Orton  states 
that  G.  hacuUfera  is  called  Uhim  in  Brazil.     G.  mnHiftorn,  see  fig.  57. 

Gesnouinia  arborea. 

An  herbaceous  perennial  belonging  to  the  Urtlcacew.  Savorgnan  states  that  G. 
arborea,  Teneriffe,  yields  a  fiber  similar  to  that  extracted  from  the  ramie  plant.  I 
find  no  other  reference  to  the  genus  as  fiber  producing. 

Geta  netul  (Ceyl.).     Sfreblns  asper. 

Ghaipat  (Ind.).     Yucca  gloriosa. 

Ghanga  (Beng.).     Cannabis  sativa. 

Ghay-mari,  of  Liotard.     (Ind.).     Agave  riripara. 

Ghi-kayar  }   ^^,^^      ^j^^  ^.^,.^, 

Ghirta-kuman  )  ^         ' 

Giant  asclepias  (Ind.).     See  Calotropis  (jigantea. 

Giant  nettle  (Anstr.).     See  Laportca  gigas. 

Gietta  and  Guyetta.     (Arizona.)     Hilaria  jamesii. 

Gigantic  gum  tree  (See  Eucalyptus  ohliqua). 

Ginestra. 

A  general  term  used  in  Italy  to  designate  Spartium  junceum,  and  similar  grass-like 

plants.     Some  of  the  plants  recognized  in  Italy  under  this  name  are : di  apagna, 

Sparthtm  junceiim  ;  da  r/ranate,  S.  scoparitim  :  dl  hosco,  Coronilla  emerus. 

Farmo  (linestrino  is  ginestra  cloth. 

The  employment  of  the  small  twigs  of  the  Ginestra  for  binding  up  vines  and  gath- 
ering together  bundles  of  herbs  is  very  ancient,  as  is  attested  by  I'liny,  who  writes: 
"Gtnista  quoque  vinculi prnsfat."  The  increased  use  of  this  plant  is  indicated,  in  the 
thirteenth  century,  by  the  statement,  "From  Ginestra  can  be  made  tow  or  wadding 
and  oakum  which  may  be  used  in  place  of  hemp  or  of  flax."  (Extract  from  the  Trea- 
tise on  Agriculture,  Milan,  1805.)  The  peasants  in  many  places  w^ore  cloth  woven 
from  the  fiber  of  Ginestra.  In  Maremraa  from  time  immemorial  they  have  produced 
fiber  from  this  plant  for  the  manufacture  of  coarse  material. 

Girardinia  palmata.     The  Nilghiri  Kettle. 

Syn.   G.  heterophylla  and  G.  zeylaniea. 
Exogen.     TJrticaeew.     A  tall  herb,  4  to  6  feet. 
In  the  Die.  Ec.  Prod.  Ind.,  Vol.  Ill,  this  important  species  of  nettle  is  described 
under  the  name  G.  heterophylla,  the  two  forms  known  as  G.  palmata  and  G.  zeylanica 


172 


USEFUL  FIBER  PLANTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


beiag  regarded  ;is  varieties.  "It  abounds  in  tlie  tenijieiate  and  subtropical  Hima- 
layas, ascending  to  an  altitude  of  5,000  icet.  It  is  also  met  with  in  Assam,  Sylhet, 
and  Burma,  and  extends  from  Marwar  and  central  India  to  Travancore  and  Ceylon. 
The  variety  2>alni(da  is  a  native  of  the  Nilghiri  hills  and  Ceylon,  while  zeylanica  is 
confined  to  the  latter  locality  and  parts  of  the  Decc^an."     (  Watt. ) 

Bast  Fiber.— The  above  authority  states  that  the  fibers  from  the  three  forms  are 
perfectly  distinct  in  numy  of  their  characters,  and  should  therelbre  be  considered 
separately.  From  the  account  given  in  the  work  cited  above  the  following  extracts 
are  reproduced : 

a.hetcrophiiJla:  Stems  often  employed  for  making  twine  and  ropes  by  the  dry 
process,  but  these  are  iu)t  prized  and  perish  ((uickly  from  the  wet.     Yields  a  fine, 

strong  fiber,  used  for  cordage  and 
twine,  but  can  not  stand  much  moisture. 
a.  jxiJiiKitd  :  The  true  Nilghiri  nettle; 
it  yields  a  finer  and  more  valuable  fiber 
than  tlif  i>receding.  Royle  writes  that 
the  liber  is  A'ery  long,  soft,  and  silky, 
and  has  been  much  admired  by  many 
of  the  best  judges  of  fibers.  At  Dun- 
dee it  was  thought  a  very  good  fiber, 
but  rather  dry.  Mr.  Dickson,  who  has 
passed  it  thtough  his  machine  and  solu- 
tion, has  rendered  it  a  beautiful,  soft, 
silky  kind  of  tlux  and  calls  it  a  wonder- 
ful liber,  of  which  the  tow  would  be 
useful  for  mixing  with  wool  as  has  l)een 
done  with  China  grass,  and  the  fiber 
used  for  the  finest  purposes.  In  Spou's 
Encyclo])edia  the  Girardiuias  are 
spoken  of  collectively  under  the  name 
of  (1.  hetcropliijUu,  but  it  seems  that  (1. 
palmaia  alone  is  meant.  The  following 
extract  may  be  found  useful :  "It  suc- 
ceeds well  by  cultivation.  The  bark 
abounds  in  fine,  white,  glossy,  strong 
fibers  which  have  a  rougher  surface 
than  those  of  Bochmeria  nirea,  and  are 
therefore  more  easily  combined  with 
wool  in  mixed  fabrics."  Owing  to  the 
high  percentage  of  cellulose  and  the 
small  Idss  from  hydrolysis,  the  fiber  is 
chemically  one  of  the  best  produced  in 
India. 

(1.  zeylanica :  Little  is  knowTi  regard- 
ing the  fiber  of  this  variety,  although  it  is  used  in  the  Konkan  and  other  parts  of 
western  and  southwestern  India.  It  woubl  appear,  however,  that  it  is  very  similar 
to  that  produced  by  the  true  Nilghiri  nettle. 

CiLTiVATiON. — Like  the  China  grass  plant,  it  can  be  cut  as  a  perennial  and  con- 
tinue to  throw  out  fresh  shoots  and  roots  for  three  or  four  years.  The  seeds  are  sown 
in  rows  1.5  inches  apart  in  alluvial  soils,  and  the  stalks  are  cut  in  .July  and  .January. 
It  is  stated  that  from  the  .July  crop  an  average  of  450  to  500  pounds  of  fiber  may  be 
expected,  120  pounds  of  this  being  of  superior  quality.  The  .January  crop  will  yield 
600  to  700  pounds  of  fiber;  but  the  fiber  of  this  crop  is  uniform,  but  of  coarse  quality, 
owing  to  the  shoots  being  matured  by  the  setting  in  of  the  dry  season  in  December. 

Ginger  grass  (see  Andropogon  schoenanthiis). 


Fig.  57. 


-The  ri)iiiii:iiin,  Ceonoiiia  iiuiltiflora. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  173 

Gleichenia  glauca. 

A  geuHs  of  polypodiaceoiis  ferns  fonntl  in  the.  Tropics  of  both  hemispheres  and 
extending  to  Chile  and  the  Austrahxsian  region.  The  species  named  is  found  in  the 
East.  The  Kew  Mus.  exhibits  a  Malay  hat  made  from  the  hbrous  bundles  of  the 
plant. 

Gnetum  spp. 

'I'hese  are  trees  or  creeping  shrubs  found  in  tropical  Asiaand  in  Guiana.  G.  gnemon, 
found  in  the  Isles  of  Sunda,  New  Guinea,  the  Philippines,  etc.,  yields  a  fiber,  derived 
from  its  bark,  used  for  cordage  smd  textures  of  coarse  quality.  ('•.  scundeiis  is  an 
India  species,  the  stems  of  ^yhich  arc  employed  by  the  natives  of  the  Andaman  Islands 
for  the  manufacture  of  lishing  nets.  The  outer  covering  of  the  seeds  of  (/.  iirens  is 
lined  with  stinging  hairs. 

God-tree  (Mex.).     See  Bomhax  ceiha. 

Gomphocarpus  physocarpus.     Quomotanetu,  of  Katal. 

Exogen.     AHclvpiadacen'.     A  shrub. 

The  species  of  this  genus  are  chiefly  confined  to  southern  and  northeastern  Africa 
and  Arabia,     (r.  physocarpus  is  found  in  Natal. 

Fiber. — Produced  from  the  bark.  J.  Medley  Wood,  curator  of  the  Natal  Botanic 
Gardens,  gives  an  interesting  account  of  the  fiber  in  tne  Annual  Report  of  the  Durban 
Botanic  Society  for  1888  (p.  13).  Samples  of  the  fiber  were  received  in  the  year  named 
from  Zululand,  and  from  Durban,  which  were  sent  to  England  for  report  as  to  their 
merits  and  value.  The  fiber  was  described  as  very  good  as  to  color  and  strength, 
and  if  it  could  be  produced  in  large  quantities  and  be  carefully  cleaned,  it  would 
bring  £2.5  per  ton  c.  i.  f.,  London. 

"The  peculiarity  of  this  hemp  is  its  exceptional  strength,  and  no  doubt  if  it  could 
be  produced  in  large  enough  quantities  and  the  length  increased,  it  would  sell 
quickly  and  equally  well  with  nianila  hemp,  the  present  price  for  which  is,  say,  £33 
to  £34  per  ton." 

Samples  sent  to  Dr.  Morris,  Kew,  were  submitted  to  Messrs.  Ide  &  Christie,  the 
London  fiber  brokers,  who  reported  adversely  on  the  iiber  on  account  of  its  bad  prepa- 
ration. Its  value  was  estimated  at  £15  per  ton,  but  it  was  thought  that  properly 
cleansed  its  value  would  be  enhanced  75  or  100  per  cent. 

Gomphocarpus  brasiliensis. 

This  Brazilian  species  is  noted,  in  Liifgren's  paper,  as  found  on  the  ^)lants  of  Sao 
Paulo  called  Faina  dc  seda.  Its  seed  hairs  are  used  as  ujjholstery  material.  The 
plant  is  cultivated  and  blooms  in  the  winter  mouths. 

Gomuti  fiber  (Malacca).     See  Arenga  sacchari/era. 
Goni.     Sanskrit  name  of  Sansenitria  roxhurghiana 
Gonolobus  maritimus. 

Syn.  Ihaiia  mitricaia. 
An  asclepiadaceous  climber  of  ^'enezuela,  "which  yields  a  milky  juice  said  to  be  a 
good  pectoral.     The  seed  hairs  are  brittle  and  can  not  be  spun."  {Dr.  Ernst).     The 
fiber  was  exhibited  in  the  Venezuela  court,  W.  C.   E.,  1893,  under  the  name  Silk 
Wool  of  Orozuz.     It  is  a  silk  cotton,  or  surface  fiber. 

Goo-mao-mah  (Austr.).     See  Laportca  gigas. 
Gorakha-amla  (Bomb.).     Adansonia. 


174 


USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


G-ossypium  spx).     Cotton. 

Exogens.     Malraceiv.     Tall  herbs  and  shrubs. 

Common  and  native  namks. — Hojii  (moqui),  Indian  name,  Piicii;  Ahjodon  (Span. ) ; 
Tchcaxihitvitl  (Yuc,  or  ancient  Max.);    Varai  (Tahiti);    Coton  (Fr.);    Cotone 
(It.);    BaumwoUe  (Ger.);    Fembeh  or  I'oombeh  (Pers.);    (latn,  Kotan,  or  Kiitn 
(Arab.);  Caij  Haung  (Cochin  China);  Hoa  mein  (China);    Watta  ik  or   Walla 
noli  (Jap.);  Tonfai  (Siam);  Nurma  (Hind.);  Deo  Knrpas  and  Deo  Kapan,  God's 
cotton  (Mysore  and  Bomb.) ;  Nn-wa  (Bnrni.) ;  Koliung  (Mong.),  and  many  others. 
Habitat  and  .species. — The  origin  of  the  cotton  itlant  is  a  question  not  easily  set- 
tled, as  cotton  has  been  grown  in  many  countries  from  an  exceedingly  remote  period. 
It  is  probable  that  a  ])lant  numbering  so  many  species  is  indigenous  in  different 
localities,  though  Rhind  states  that  it  may  possibly  have  come  from  Persia  originally, 
then  crossed  into  Egypt,  thence  to  Asia  Minor  and  the  Indian  Archii)elago.     M.  Ber- 
nardin,  curator  of  the  Industrial  Museum  of  Ghent,  in  his  "Nomenclature  Uselle  de 
Fibres  Textiles,"  gives  the  origin  of  tlie  several  si)ecies  named,  crediting  at  least  two 

to  North  America,  G. 
harbadense  from  the 
West  Indies,  and  G. 
/((/•sM<M/«  from  Mexico. 
a.  herhacc  1(1)1  ho  re- 
gards as  originally  an 
East  Indian  species. 
So  much  has  been 
written  upon  this 
subject  and  authori- 
ties differ  so  widely 
that  great  confusion 
has  resulted.  To  add 
to  the  complication, 
cotton  has  been  cul- 
tivated in  portions  of 
the  earth  from  remote 
ages,  and  in  many 
countries  for  cen- 
turies— for  a  period 
of  over  8,000  years  in 
India — for  we  read 
that  when  Egypt  was 
in  tlie  zenith  of  lier  glory  the  delicate  cotton  tissues  of  India  were  famous,  and  Egypt 
at  that  time  had  a  cotton  industry  of  her  own.  On  our  continent  the  Aztecs  of  Mex- 
ico and  the  Incas  of  I'eru  ages  and  ages  ago  spun  and  wove  cotton,  and  the  Hopi  Indians 
of  Arizona,  preserving  a  tradition  aiul  the  requirements  of  a  custom  that  has  come 
down  from  remote  times,  Avill  only  use  in  their  religious  ceremonials  strings  or  cords 
made  from  native-grown  cotton,  twisted  by  the  officiating  i^riests.  Regarding  the 
countries  where  cotton  is  cultivated,  see  statements  on  the  distribution  of  cultiva- 
tion, page  178. 

In  a  recent  work  on  the  cotton  plant.  Bulletin  No.  33,  prepared  by  the  Office  of 
Experiment  Stations  of  the  I'nited  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  the  history, 
botany,  culture,  chemistry,  and  uses  of  this  plant  are  treated  almost  exhaustively. 
From  the  chapter  on  the  botanical  consideration  of  the  subject,  prepared  by  Dr. 
Walter  H.  Evans,  the  statements  regarding  the  different  species  of  cotton,  which 
follow,  have  been  condensed:  On  account  of  their  great  variability  the  species  of 
Gos!ii/2)ium  are  diflicult  of  limitation,  and  various  attempts  have  been  made  to 
classify  them.  Linnaus  described  at  least  3  species,  and  since  that  time  the  num- 
ber of  species  and  synonyms  has  increased  euornmusly.  Two  monographs  of  tbe 
genus  have  been  published  by  Italian  botanists,  the  tirst  l)y  Filijipo  Paiiatore  in 


cottou  i)iaiit,  Ooxxyptiim. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE. 


175 


180(5,  iu  which  the  author  recognized  7  species,  with  8  others  in  doubt.  The  other 
monograph  was  by  Agostino  Todaro,  published  in  1877,  iu  which  are  dejscribed  52 
species,  with  2  as  uncertain.  Ilauiiltou  sought  to  avoid  confusiou  by  dividing  the 
genus  into  3  species,  the  white  seeded,  black  seeded,  and  yellow  linted,  to  which 
he  gave  the  names  album,  niyrum,  and  croceum.  A  recent  publication,  Index  Kew- 
ensi.s,  recognizes  42  species,  of  which  but  a  very  few  arc  of  economic  importance, 
and  mentions  8H  others  that  have  been  reduced  to  synonyms,  most  of  them  being 
synonyms  of  species  in  common  cultivation.  The  great  variability  and  the  tendency 
toliybridize  make  it  difficult  to  detei'uiiue  to  which  species  a  given  plant  may  belong. 
No  cultivated  jilant  responds  so  quickly  to  ameliorated  conditions  of  soil,  climate, 
and  cultivation  as  the  cotton  plant,  and  to  this  fact  is  due  much  of  the  confusion  as 


Fig.  59. — Sea  Island  cotton. 

to  species  and  varieties.  Another  factor  entering  into  the  confusion  is  the  imper- 
fectly known  types  that  have  been  described  as  species.  It  has  been  stated  that 
some  of  the  species  now  widely  cultivated  are  wholly  unknown  iu  a  Avild  state,  and 
some  of  the  specimens  described  by  Linna'us  were  in  all  probability  from  plants 
that  had  long  been  iu  cultivation.  The  work  of  establishing  the  origin  of  the  cul- 
tivated species  has  been  still  further  complicated  by  the  exchange  of  seed  from  coun- 
try to  country  that  has  been  going  on  for  at  least  four  centuries. 

Among  the  species  recognized  to  be  of  more  or  less  economic  importance  are  (;. 
arhoreum,  G.  neglectmn,  G.  brasUiense,  G.  herbaceum,  G.barbadense,  and  perhaps  a  few 
others.  In  this  country  only  the  herbaceous  cottons  are  cultivated  to  any  extent. 
The  shrubby  and  arboreous  are  grown  occasionally  as  curiosities,  but  they  seldom 


176  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

or  never  produce  auylint  in  regions  liaviug  as  low  a  mean  temperature  as  the  cotton 
belt  of  the  United  States. 

The  deterraiaation  of  the  species  of  cotton  grown  in  this  country  presents  some 
peculiar  difticulties.  The  authorities  differ  wididy  regarding  the  specific  origin  of 
the  short-staple  or  ujiland  cotton,  while  more  ne;irly  agreeing  on  that  of  the  sea- 
island  cotton.  The  latter  is  gcnerallj'^  considered  as  having  originated  from  G. 
harhadense.  Species  which  have  been  considered  sj'nonynis  of  G.  barbadense  are  G.fru- 
ffscens Lasteyr.,  (r./wscHHi  Rosb.,  G.glabrnm'La.m.,  G.javiaicensc'Msicfud.,  G.javanirnm 
Blnme,  G.  maritimiim  Todaro,  G.  niiirum  Hamilton,  G .  oligospermnm  Macfad.,  G.perenne 
Blanco,  G.  peruvinnum  Cav.,  G.  punctatum  Schum.  and  Thonn.,  G.  racemostim  Poir.,  (I. 
relitjiosum  Parlatore,  G.  vififolhim  Lam.,  and  perhaps  others. 

This  species  is  indigenous  to  the  Lesser  Antilles  and  probably  to  San  Salvador,  the 
Bahamas,  Barbados,  Guadalonpe,  and  other  islands  between  12'^  and  26^  north  lati- 
tude. By  cultivation,  it  has  been  extended  throughout  the  "West  Indies,  the  mari- 
time coast  of  the  Southern  States,  Central  America,  Puerto  Rico,  Jamaica,  etc., 
southern  Spain,  Algeria,  the  islands  and  coast  of  western  tropical  Africa,  Egypt, 
Island  of  Bourbon,  East  Indies,  Queensland,  New  South  Wales,  etc.  It  nujy  be  cul- 
tivated in  any  region  having  a  hot  and  Iiumid  atmosphere,  but  the  results  of  acclima- 
tization indicate  that  the  humid  atmosphere  is  not  entirely  necessary  if  irrigation 
be  employed,  as  this  species  is  imdonbtedly  grown  extensi\ely  in  Egyjit.  As  a  rule, 
the([uality  of  the  staple  improves  witli  1he  jiroximity  to  the  sea,  but  there  are  excep- 
tions to  this  rule,  as  that  grown  on  Jamaica  and  some  other  islands  is  of  ratlier  low 
grade,  while  the  best  fiber  is  jtroduced  along  the  shores  of  Georgia  and  South  Carolina. 

The  j'ield  of  lint  from  Sea  Island  cotton  is  less  than  from  any  other  kind  grown  in 
this  country,  but  on  account  of  tlio  leiigtli  and  ([uality  of  the  fiber  it  is  adapted  to 
uses  to  which  the  other  kinds  are  not  suited,  and  its  high  market  value  compensates 
for  the  small  yield. 

G.  herbaceum:  While  scarcely  any  of  the  authors  agree  in  the  more  important 
points  when  discussing  tlie  origin  of  upland  cotton,  tlie  weight  of  opinion  seems  to 
be  that  the  species  is  either  G.  herbaccinn  or  G.  hirsutum,  whiih  are  considered 
synonymous,  and  the  former  name  is  employed  to  designate  the  species,  which 
includes  in  its  synonyms  the  following:  G.  album  Hamilton,  G.  chuunse  Fisch.  & 
Otto,  G.  vroceum  Hamilton,  G.  egJaudulosiim  Cav.,  G.  elaium  Salisl),,  G.  glandulosum 
Steud.,  (/.  hirsutum  lAnxi.,  G.  indicum  ham.,  G.  latifolium  Murv.,  G.  ?eo»imwm  Medic., 
G.  macedoniciim  Murr.,  G,  micranlhiim  Cav.,  ^r'.  moUe  Mauri,  <r.  nanlhu/  Meyen,  G. 
obtusi/oliiim  Roxb.,  G.  panicuhdnm  Blanco,  G.punctatum  Guil.  it  Perr  ,  G.  relitjiosum 
Linn.,  Cr,  sia m<'nse  Tenore,  C  snfense  Fisch.,  G.  .s/j'ic<H)(i  Medic,  G,  tricusjndatum  ham., 
and  G.  ritifolium  Roxb.,  together  with  numerous  others  the  descriptions  of  which 
are  too  indefinite  or  the  specimens  too  meager  to  determine  them  positively. 

The  origin  of  this  series  is  niucli  more  confused  than  that  of  the  sea-island  cotton. 
If  we  should  separate  the  upland  cotton  into  two  species,  viz,  G .  herbaceum  and  G. 
hirsutum,  probably  the  (juestion  would  be  simplified,  as  tlie  former  is  generally  con- 
sidered of  Asiatic  origin,  while  tlie  other  is  attributed  to  America.  Todaro  (Rel.  sulla 
coltura  dei  cotoni  in  Italia,  1877-78.  p.  212)  claims  that  the  form  called  by  him  (r. 
hirsutum  originated  in  Mexico,  whence  it  has  been  spread  by  cultivators  throughout 
the  warmer  portions  of  the  world. 

To  this  form  he  ascribes  the  Georgia  upland  cotton  or  the  longstajde  upland  cot- 
ton. Parlatore  (Le  specie  dei  cotoni,  p.  13)  considers  it  indigenous  to  some  of  the 
islands  of  the  Gulf  of  Jlexico  as  wtll  as  the  mainland,  and  all  green-seeded  cotton, 
which  is  cultivated  so  widely,  as  originating  from  this  form.  Ou  the  other  hand,  he 
claims  India,  especially  the  shores  of  Coromandel,  as  the  primitive  home  of  (/.  her- 
baceum, from  which  jjlace  it  has  spread  as  extensively  as  its  western  congener,  and 
is  found  in  cultivation  in  nearly  the  same  regions.  Todaro  says  that  G.  herbaceum 
is  spontaneous  in  Asia  and  perhaps  also  in  Egypt,  and  he  claims  G.  wiffhtianum  as  the 
primitive  form  of  the  Indian  cottons.  Maxwell  T.  Masters  claims  G.  stovksii  as  the 
original  of  all  cultivated  forms  grouped  under  (1.  herbaceum.  Others  consider  G. 
herbaceum  as  a  native  of  Africa,  and  it  seems  impossible  from  the  mass  of  confiicting 
evidence  to  determine  just  where  it  did  originate.  It  seems  probalile  that  G.  herba- 
ceum is  not  a  definite  species,  but  one  devcloi>ed  by  cultivation  from,  i>erhaps,  sev- 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE. 


177 


ei"al  will!  species,  ;iud  it  represeuts  uot  a  species  but  a  group  of  Lylirids  aud  forms 
more  or  less  closely  related.  The  cottous  called  ''uaukeeu"  are  ouly  color  variatious 
of  the  above,  aud  luay  be  fuiiud  in  uearly  every  species  that  is  cultivated.  Author- 
ities agree  that  iu  all  probability  the  yellow  liut  is  the  wild  forui  of  all  cottons,  aud 
this  character  cau  not  be  used  to  designate  species. 

(r.  arhoretim  Linn,  is  a  shrubby  perennial,  but  iu  cultivation  sometimes  annual  or 
biennial;  fiber,  two  forms;  one  white,  long,  overlying  a  dark-green  or  black  down; 
not  readily  separable  from  the  seed.  This  species  of  cotton  appears  to  be  indigenous 
to  India  and  the  regions  bordering  on  the  Indian  Ocean.  According  to  Watt  it  is 
found  near  temples  and  in  gardens,  where  it  is  said  to  be  in  llower  most  of  the  year. 
The  plant  is  a  perennial,  lasting  for  five  or  six  years  or  longer,  and  is  not  used  as  a 
field  crop.  The  fiber  is  fine,  silky,  and  an  inch  or  more  in  length,  but  little  of  it  is 
produced.     The  cultural  name  gi\en  it  is  Nurma  or  Ueo  cotton,  aud  its  use  is  said  to 


Fui.  60.— TTplami  cotton. 

be  restricted  to  making  thread  for  the  turbans  of  the  jiriestly  class.     Its  value  is 
said  to  be  greatly  overrated.     This  species  is  sometimes  known  as  G.  rdiijiosum. 

G.  iie'jlectiim  Tod. :  This  species,  indigenous  to  India,  is  very  similar  to  G.  arho- 
rt'itm,  and  by  some  is  thought  to  be  a  hybrid  between  that  species  and  some  other,  or 
it  may  bo  only  a  cultural  form  of  the  first.  It  is  a  large  bush,  although  sometimes 
only  18  inches  in  height,  aud  is  extensively  grown  in  India  as  a  field  crop.  It  is  the 
Dacca  cotton  of  Royle  and  Roxburgh  and  the  China  cotton  of  the  same  authors. 
This  species  is  cultivated  in  Bengal,  the  Punjab,  and  the  Northwest  Provinces,  and 
it  constitutes  to  a  large  extent  the  Bengal  cotton  of  commerce.  Todaro  has  sepa- 
rated from  the  species  two  varieties — roxhiirghiaiium  and  ch'mense — corresponding  to 
the  Dacca  and  China  cottons  above  mentioned.  It  is  very  probable  that  both  the 
varieties  and  the  species  are  not  well  founded,  but  are  cultural  forms.  There  is 
another  Indian  species,  G.  ^vighfianuix  Tod.,  that  is  claimed  to.  be  the  form  chiefly 
12247— Xo.  9 12 


178  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

cultivated  in  India.  It  greatly  resembles  the  (r.  herhaceum  of  India,  Imt  differs  from 
tliat  species  iu  that  the  latter  has  broader  and  more  rounded  leaves,  and  broader, 
thinner,  and  deeper-cut  braeteoles.  This  species  is  said  to  readily  hybridize  with 
G.  nvgleetiim,  and  numerous  species  have  been  founded  npon  these  cultural  forms. 
Among  these  hybrids  are  some  of  the  most  valuable  of  Indian  cottons.  The  typical 
forms  of  the  foregoing  species  of  cotton  have  their  seed  free  from  each  other,  but 
there  is  another  group  in  which  the  seeds  of  each  cell  are  closely  adherent  in  an  oval 
mass,  from  which  appearance  they  are  called  "kidney"  cottons.  Most,  if  not  all,  of 
these  species  are  tropical,  and  their  presence  in  this  country  as  anything  more  than 
curiosities  is  highly  improbable.  The  most  important  of  them  is  G.  hrasUlense 
Macfad.,  and  in  addition  to  the  fact  of  the  seed  adhering  in  clusters  the  species  is  an 
absorbent  plant  with  very  large,  5  to  7  divaricate-lobed  leaves  and  A-ery  deeply 
laciniate  iuvolucral  bracts.  The  cottons  of  South  America,  known  to  the  trade  as 
Peruand)UCO,  Ceara,  Santos,  etc.,  are  evidently  not  of  this  species,  but  belong  to  the 
Ct.  harhddoisc  and  G.  herhaainn  series. 

For  the  botanical  descriptions  of  the  several  species,  w  hicli  have  heen  omitted 
here,  the  student  is  referred  to  Dr.  Walter  H.  Evan's  complete  account  in  The  Cotton 
Plant,  previously  mentioned,  page  67. 

SuiuwcK  FiBEH. — The  lint  or  fiber  of  cotton  is  the  seed  hairs  which  are  found  in  the 
fruit  or  boll  of  the  plant  after  maturity.  The  value  of  the  lint  depends  upon  the 
length  of  these  seed  hairs,  and  this  is  known  in  commercial  parlance  as  the  "staple.'' 
Naturally,  the  "short  staples''  are  less  valuable  than  the  "long  staples."  Upland 
cotton  is  an  example  of  the  former;  sea-island  cotton  of  the  latter.  Seen  longitudi- 
nally, the  til)ers  of  ct)tton  appear  quite  independent  of  each  other;  they  are  Ihit  and 
always  more  or  less  twisted,  like  a  corkscrew.  This  last  i'eaturc  is  quite  character- 
istic. The  length  of  the  fibers  varies  from  1  to  li  inches  for  long-stapled,  and  from 
■f  to  f  inch  for  short-stapled.     (See  fig.  4,  x>age  27,  Introduction.) 

The  world's  cultivatiox. — Cotton  in  its  several  sjiecies  and  many  varirties  is  a 
prodiict  which  belongs  to  all  intertropical  countries,  for  the  plant  has  been  so  widely 
distributed  and  has  been  in  cultivation  so  long  a  time  that  in  many  of  these  coun- 
tries it  is  considered  indigenous.  Spon  gives  the  geographical  parallels  between 
which  cotton  is  usually  cultivated  as  stretching  in  varying  girdles  between  36  noi  tli 
latitude  and  36-  south  latitude,  though  Dr.  Evans  places  the  parallels  at  40-  or  more 
on  either  side  of  the  equator,  or  to  the  isothermal  line  of  60^  F.  In  this  country, 
latitude  37^  north  about  reiiresents  the  limit  of  econonuc  growth.  The  production 
of  the  world's  cotton  has  been  distributed  in  the  following  countries: 

The  .hiiericaii  Continent. — In  the  United  States  the  upland-cotton  belt  extends  Ironi 
southeast  Virginia  to  Texas,  and  its  distribution  is  mainly  between  the  tide-water 
district  and  the  foothills  of  the  Appalachian  Mountain  system.  The  deep  alluvial 
soils  of  the  ^lississijipi  Valley  i'avor  extension  of  cotton  growing  much  farther  north- 
ward, from  the  sugar  district  of  southern  Louisiana  to  tlie  southern  liorder  of  Mis- 
souri, including  most  of  Arkansas  and  western  Tennessee,  while  the  higher  elevation 
of  central  and  eastern  Tennessee  limits  culture  and  diverts  sharply  the  line  of  limita- 
tion around  the  foothills  of  northwestern  Georgia.  Fifty  years  ago  Mississippi,  near 
the  western  border  of  cultivation,  had  surjiassed  other  States  and  i)roduced  nearly 
a  fourth  of  the  product ;  now  Texas,  on  the  extreme  west,  yields  one-third  of  a  crop 
doubled  in  volume.  Except  a  very  limited  area  in  Virginia,  Kentucky,  Missouri,  and 
Oklahoma,  cultivation  is  mainly  confined  to  suitable  and  comparatively  limited  dis- 
tricts iu  North  and  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  Florida,  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Tennes- 
see, Arkansas.  Louisiana,  and  Texas. 

Mexico,  prior  to  the  conquest  by  Cortez,  produced  annually  116,000,000  pounds, 
l)ut  the  culture  was  abandoned  iu  many  sections  under  Spanish  rule.  In  1><60  the 
industry  received  a  stimulus  on  account  of  the  war  of  the  rebellion;  since  1882  the 
culture  has  been  still  further  extended,  until,  in  1895,  the  output  was  25,000,000 
pounds.  The  State  of  Coahuila  produces  the  larger  portion  of  the  cotton  of  Mexico. 
The  best  cotton,  however,  is  grown  in  the  State  of  (iuerrero,  around  Acapulco,  and 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  179 

the  most  inferior  in  Chiapas.  The  three  cotton  sections  of  this  country  are  the  east 
and  west  coasts  and  in  the  central  idateaii,  in  the  hitter  irrigation  being  necessary. 
Mexico  is  a  purchaser  of  cotton  from  the  United  States. 

A  little  cotton,  perhaps  1,000  hales,  is  grown  in  the  West  Indies,  whence  at  the 
beginning  of  the  present  century  25,000  bales  were  exjiorted,  chiefly  to  this  country. 
The  cotton  produced  was  the  sea  island,  known  also  as  Anguilla,  claimed  to  be 
indigenous  in  Hondurus.  In  1874  the  island  of  Puerto  Rico  produced  254,000  pounds, 
but  the  culture  has  declined. 

Several  of  the  South  American  countries  cultivate  considerable  quanties  of  cotton. 
In  Brazil  it  grows  in  nearly  every  province.  R.  B.  Handy  states  that  while  it  may 
be  grown  in  almost  unlimited  quantities  from  Sao  Paulo  all  along  the  coast  to  the 
Amazon,  and  for  that  matter  throughout  the  whole  Empire,  in  reality,  however,  its 
cultivation  to  a  considerable  extent  is  limited  to  the  drier  regions  of  the  north, 
along  the  valley  of  the  River  Sao  Francisco  and  in  parts  of  the  province  of  Minas 
Geraes.  In  the  more  southern  provinces  the  amount  of  cotton  grown  for  export  is 
at  present  insignificant.  Brazil  exports  about  60,000,000  pounds,  chiefly  to  England. 
Ecuador  is  a  small  producer  of  cotton,  and  Dutch  Guiana  also  produces  a  little, 
though  early  in  the  present  century  the  cotton  export  in  a  single  year  amounted  to 
over  3,000,000  pounds.  Peru  produces  a  peculiar  natiA'e  variety  of  "tree  cotton," 
with  a  strong,  rough,  crinkly  staple  usually  If  to  11  inches  long,  known  as  "vegeta- 
ble wool "  and  used  by  manufacturei's  for  mixing  with  wool,  and  difiicult  to  detect 
except  by  chemical  tests.  For  this  reason  the  woolgrowers,  in  a  new  wool  tariff 
bill,  have  asked  for  a  customs  duty  of  15  cents  per  pound  on  it.  It  is  a  varying 
product  estimated  at  a  minimum  of  10,000  to  a  maximum  of  50,000  bales  of  180 
pounds.     In  1885  our  imports  were  only  14  bales;  9,500  bales  in  18S0;  12,500  in  1891. 

Europe. — Spou  says:  Of  European  countries  Italy  alone  seems  to  possess  the  con- 
ditions requisite  for  successful  cotton  culture.  The  jiresent  centers  are  around  Bari 
and  Barletta,  on  the  Adriatic;  in  the  neighborhood  of  Salerno,  Saron,  and  Castella- 
mare,  south  of  Naples,  and  in  the  provinces  of  Caltanissetta  and  Girgenti,  on  the 
south  shores  of  Sicily.  The  products  are  known  respectively  as  "Pugliar,"  "Cas- 
tellamare,"  "Biancavilla,"  and  ''Terrauova."     Sardinia  also  grows  a  little. 

The  cotton  of  the  Levant,  Greece  and  Turkey  and  their  provinces,  amounts  to  not 
more  than  8,000,000  pounds  annually,  75  per  cent  of  which  is  shipped  to  England  and 
other  parts  of  Europe,  Cyprus  grows  in  ordinary  years  1,000,000  pounds,  a  small 
part  of  what  might  be  produced,  as  the  island  is  adapted  to  the  culture. 

Asia. — British  India,  or  Hindostan,  the  part  of  India  where  cotton  is  raised,  em- 
braces four  principal  cotton  regions:  The  Vallej'  of  the  Ganges,  the  Deccan,  western 
India,  and  southern  India.  The  Ganges  Valley  is  again  divisible  into  .two  ])arts,  the 
lower  Bengal  district  and  that  of  the  Northwest  Provinces,  including  Doab  and 
Bundelcund,  lying  on  both  sides  of  the  Ganges  and  Jumna  rivers.  In  lower  Bengal 
the  cultivation  of  cotton  is  not  of  very  great  importance.  In  the  plains  of  Bengal, 
which  are  so  fertile  in  other  produce,  the  production  of  cotton  is  very  inconsiderable, 
and  none  is  exported.  The  cotton  raised  here  in  former  times,  though  short  in  staple, 
was  the  finest  known  in  the  world  and  formed  the  material  out  of  which  the  very 
delicate  and  extremely  Iteautiful  Dacca  muslin  was  manufactured.  The  border  lands 
of  the  Ganges  are  too  low  and  marshy  and  the  rainfall  too  great  for  the  successful 
cultivation  of  cotton,  but  the  hills  back  from  the  river  are  suitable  for  this  purpose, 
as  they  are  better  drained.  The  Doab  and  Bundelcund  districts  produce  almost  the 
entire  crop  of  the  Northwest  Provinces,  and  furnish  about  70,000,000  pounds  of  cotton 
for  exportation,  which  is  a  good  "India  cotton."  The  climatic  character  of  these 
districts  is  "first  a  flood  and  then  a  drought,"  with  an  inclination  to  an  insufliciency 
of  rain,  in  great  contrast  to  that  of  lower  Bengal.     {B.  B.  Handy.) 

The  Deccan,  or  central  India,  is  the  great  cotton  section  of  India.  It  occupies  the 
triangular  area  lying  south  of  the  Vindhyau  Mountains,  in  latitude  23-  north,  and 
extends  to  the  valley  of  the  Kistna,  at  IG-'  north,  with  the  Eastern  and  "Western 
Ghauts  on  either  side.     It  is  an  elevated  table-land  of  undulating  surface,  having 


180  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

soil  of  great  excellence  and  richness .  aud  of  a  cousisteucy  to  retain  moistiiry  for  a 
long  time.  Nearly  all  the  cotton  for  esjiort  is  raised  -^vitbiu  this  region  and  linds  its 
market  at  Bombay.  India,  next  to  the  United  States,  has  l)een  the  largest  producer 
of  cotton.  {JL  B.  Handy.)  During  the  period  of  civil  -war  in  the  United  States 
extraordinary  elibrts  -were  made  to  extend  cultivation,  but  Avith  so  little  success  that 
American  cotton  attained  the  extreme  price  of  $1  per  pound,  -which  fell  rapidly  as  the 
breadth  of  cultivation  was  restored.  It  is  not  equal  to  our  cotton  iu  length  or  qual- 
ity of  staple,  and  always  sells  at  a  lower  price.  Seed  from  the  United  States  has  been 
used  repeatedly,  but  deterioration  from  climatic  influences  jirevents  retaining  per- 
manently the  standard  of  (quality.  The  crop  of  1895-96  is  reported  at  3,296,046  bales. 
In  the  previous  year  it  was  2,688,546,  and  the  average  for  live  years  has  been  about 
3,000,000  bales,  averaging  about  400  pounds,  or  e<|uivalent  to  2,400,000  bales  of  our 
cotton.     It  is  therefore  between  a  third  and  a  fourth  of  the  quantity  of  our  crop. 

The  Russian  cotton  is  grown  in  Asiatic  territory,  in  Turkestan  aud  Transcaucasia. 
In  1890,  245,000  acres  of  cotton  were  i)lanted  in  Turkestan,  yielding  more  than  45,000,- 
000  pounds  of  clean  lint.  American  seed  and  American  gins  have  been  introduced 
into  the  country,  the  variety  of  cotton  known  as  Ozicr  silk  being  highly  regarded. 

Turkish  cottons  are  very  low  grade.  The  country  around  Smyrna  produces  the 
best,  however.  Other  districts  Avliere  grown,  aud  which  give  name  to  the  market 
varieties,  are:  Cassaba,  Aidin,  Deuiziii,  Kirgagatch,  and  Dajiider.  The  Adana  cot- 
ton conies  from  Tarsus.  Cotton  has  been  grown  in  Syria  for  ages,  and  a  considerable 
quantity  is  produced  about  Erivau  and  the  frontier  of  Persia. 

Chinese  cotton  is  largely  produced  in  a  region  lying  along  and  on  both  sides  of  the 
river  Yang-tze-Kiang,  where  the  soil  is  very  fertile.  In  Korea  it  is  grown  chiefly  iu 
the  provinces  of  "Whang-Hai,  Chul-La,  and  Kyng-Tanj,  though  to  some  extent  in 
other  localities.  China  aud  Korea,  as  far  as  can  be  estimated,  produce  at  the  present 
time  640,000,000  pounds  of  cotton.  The  production  of  Japan  amounted  in  1891  to 
109,879,383  pounds,  and  the  quality  of  the  cotton  was  good,  though  the  staple  was 
short.  In  the  East  Indies,  Java,  Siam,  etc.,  the  plant  is  cultivated  and  there  is  a 
small  export. 

Africa. — Of  African  cottons  the  Egyptian  is  the  most  prominent.  It  has  been 
grown  on  lands  irrigated  by  the  Nile  since  1820,  aud  iu  the  upper  regions  of  that 
river  from  time  immemorial.  There  are  several  Aarieties,  most  of  them  yielding 
fiber  of  a  brownish  tint,  1  to  1^  inches  long,  strong  and  flue,  anore  lustrous  than  our 
upland  and  commanding  a  higher  price,  but  not  so  long  or  fine  or  valuable  as  the 
sea-island.  Ellison  (the  Liverpool  authority)  gives  680,000  bales  as  the  export  to 
Europe  aud  America  during  the  last  year,  with  a  surplus  still  available  of  33,000, 
or  a  total  supply  of  713,000  bales,  equivalent  to  more  than  1,000,000  bales  of  L^'nited 
States  cotton.  Nearly  all  of  the  Egyptian  product  is  exported.  A  large  increase  iu 
production  has  been  made  in  the  past  six  years,  the  average  exports  of  the  period 
being  more  than  50  per  cent  in  excess  of  those  of  the  preceding  ten  years. 

In  other  portions  of  Africa,  both  on  the  cast  and  west  coasts,  as  Senegambia,  Libe- 
ria, the  Congo  States,  the  Soudan,  etc.,  a  considerable  amount  of  this  stajile  is  pro- 
duced, the  greater  part  of  which  is  consumed  a-t  home. 

In  Australia  cotton  culture  has  been  attempted,  and  while  a  little  fiber  is  grown 
it  can  hardly  be  called  a  promising  industry.  Very  small  (quantities  are  also  pro- 
duced in  many  of  the  islands  of  the  Pacific,  and  in  some  of  them  the  product  shows 
a  good  stfiple.     The  Fiji  and  Tahiti  cottons  are  exported. 

Cotton  industry  of  the  United  States.' — Soon  after  the  invention  of  Eli  Whit- 
ney's satv  gin  in  1793  the  L^nited  States  became  the  principal  source  of  cotton  supply 
for  the  mills  of  the  world,  at  a  period  when  spinning  machinery  was  a  recent  inven- 
tion and  the  modern  factory  system  was  in  its  infancy.  In  1860,  four-fifths  of  the 
consum])tion  iu  Europe  aud  America  was  of  the  cotton  of  this  country.  Production 
was  nearly  suspended  during  the  years  of  civil  war  following,  but  in  a  year  or  two 

'  Coutributed  bv  .T.  R.  Dodge. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  181 

after  its  close  the  proportiou  of  the  supply  agaiu  exceeded  oue-half,  became  two- 
thirds  in  tive  years,  and  by  l!S80  nearly  regained  the  autewar  proportion. 

The  only  reason  for  this  prominence  "^vhicli  needs  to  be  adduced  is  the  advantage 
of  climate  in  the  production  of  the  distinctive  type  of  cotton  of  the  United  States, 
the  varieties  of  green-seed  upland.  Our  cotton  belt  has  the  sunshine  of  Italy  and  a 
rainfall  largely  in  excess  of  the  national  average;  and  cotton  is  a  sun  plant,  fond  of 
water,  with  a  taproot  to  get  it  by  piercing  the  friable  and  finely  comminuted  soil  so 
characteristic  of  its  areas  of  densest  distribution.  Hence  any  cotton  suited  to  preva- 
lent climatic  conditions  naturally  improves  under  cultivation.  Unlike  Egyjit  and 
India,  this  fertile  belt  needs  no  irrigation.  This  climatic  adaptation  and  soil  suita- 
bility give  a  practical  monopoly  which  cheap  labor  elsewhere  may  never  hope  to 
overcome;  at  least,  not  until  some  now  unexplored  and  untested  part  of  the  earth's 
surface  shall  bo  discovered  and  exploited  in  successful  cotton  culture. 

The  enlargement  of  production  has  been  phenomenally  rapid.  In  the  last  decade 
of  the  eighteenth  century  it  advanced  from  less  than  10,000  bales  to  more  than 
150,000;  in  the  first  decade  of  the  present  century  it  had  reached  300,000,  and  in  the 
second  600,000,  while  in  a  third  the  record  of  1,000,000  was  one  year  made,  and  at  the 
end  of  the  fourth  the  2,000,000  mark  was  passed.  At  this  point  Southern  publicists 
discovered  that  planters  had  been  guilty  of  "overstocking  the  market,"  when  the 
annual  Liverpool  average  price  of  middling  for  1845  was  reduced  to  3.92d.  per  pound, 
the  lowest  year!}'  record  ever  made  before,  or  ever  made  since  until  the  great  crop  of 
nearly  10,000,000  bales  in  1894  reduced  the  average  to  3.34d.  The  mid-century  reduc- 
tion, like  the  recent  fall,  was  the  result  of  production  (juitc  beyond  consumption, 
four  of  six  successive  ci'ops  having  exceeded  2,000,000  bales,  an  increase  of  50  per  cent 
over  the  preceding  period  of  six  years.  Thus  2,000,000  bales  per  annum  caused 
plethora,  while  8,000,000  does  not  now  meet  the  requirements  of  consumption. 

This  fact  suggests  the  remarkable  increase  in  mill  consumption  in  half  a  century, 
in  Europe  and  the  United  States,  from  less  than  3,000,000  bales  to  more  than  10,000,- 
000.  It  is  also  suggestive  of  possibility  of  further  enlargement,  as  facilities  for 
transportation  and  intercommunication  bring  cheap  clothing  within  the  reach  of 
unclothed  millions  of  populations  developing  under  the  influences  of  modern  civili- 
zation. This  is  a  hopeful  indication  for  the  future  of  cotton  growing.  Butiiroduc- 
tiou  must  not  materially  exceed  consumption,  or  instant  fall  in  price  will  sound  a 
note  of  warning  against  deliberate  self-destruction.  As  u  striking  example  of  quick 
response  of  price  to  diminished  supply,  in  1895  a  crop  reduction  of  one-fourth  advanced 
the  export  price  40  per  cent,  or  from  5.8  to  8.2  cents. 

A  complete  census  of  the  area  cultivated  was  never  taken  until  1879,  when  it 
amounted  to  14,175,270  acres.  In  1889  it  had  reached  20,175,270.  In  1891  its  largest 
breadth  was  attained,  nearly  24,000,000  acres,  which  so  reduced  the  i^rice  that  a  con- 
certed and  heavy  reduction  Avas  made.  The  extension  of  cultivation  was  continuous 
up  to  1860,  when  the  breadth  must  have  been  nearly  12,000,000  acres.  It  was  at  least 
ten  years  after  the  close  of  the  war  and-resumption  of  cultivation  that  the  area  of 
1860  was  restored.     Increase  in  twenty  years  jiast  has  been  very  rapid.  . 

Two-thirds  of  the  product  is  exported;  formerly  a  somewhat  larger  proportion. 
Increase  of  manufacture  in  the  United  States  has  more  than  kept  pace  with  the 
active  progress  of  production.  The  exports  of  the  last  two  fiscal  years  were  11,625,123 
bales,  or  68  ])er  cent  of  the  crop  movement  of  two  years  of  17,055,239  bales,  though 
fiscal  and  crop  years  are  not  quite  coincident  in  time.  The  largest  exports  ever 
made  were  in  the  year  ended  June  30,  1895,  which  were  6,965,358  bales,  of  which 
3,502,067  went  to  Great  Britain,  1,500,362  to  Germany,  778,778  to  France,  985,558  to 
other  European  countries,  105.040  to  British  America,  72,177  to  Mexico,  280  to  South 
America,  21,084  to  Asia  and  Oceanica,  and  12  to  other  countries. 

The  present  relation  of  our  cotton  to  the  factory  supply  of  Europe  and  America  is 
shown  by  Ellison's  computations,  which  for  the  iiresent  year  require  8,853,000  Scales 
of  our  crop  of  476  net  pounds,  830,000  of  East  Indian  of  400  pounds,  713,000  of 
Egyptian  at  741  pounds  for  British  and  714  for  Continental  receipts,  and  330,000 


182         USEFUL  FIBER  PLANTS  OF  THE  W(3RLD. 

miscellaueous,  in  all,  10,726.000,  or  10,355,000  reduced  to  bales  of  500  net  pounds. 
Our  proportion  is,  tbereforo,  81.5  per  cent  of  the  -whole.  Including  India,  China, 
Japan,  Mexico,  and  minor  consumptiou  elsewhere,  it  is  not  so  easy  to  determine 
closely  our  proportion  of  the  cotton  annually  used  iu  the  world,  as  there  are  no  very 
accurate  statistics  of  consumptiou  in  China  and  some  other  couutries,  hut  according 
to  accepted  estimates  it  usually  ranges  from  55  to  60  per  cent  of  it. 

Our  cotton  is  of  two  types.  The  sea-island,  or  hlack-seed,  cotton,  conliued  to 
islands  and  shores  of  South  Carolina  and  Georgia,  to  Florida,  and  to  an  extremely 
limited  distribution  along  the  Gulf  coast,  rarely  produces  more  than  60,000  bales. 
It  has  the  longest  and  liuest  stabile  and  commands  the  highest  price  of  any  commer- 
cial cotton.  More  than  99  per  cent  of  onr  crop,  however,  is  known  as  American 
upland,  having  a  green  seed  to  which  the  lilameuts  closely  adhere,  with  a  longer 
staple  aud  better  quality  than  the  East  Indian  and  most  other  growths,  varying 
somewhat  by  selection  aud  soil  cultivation.  It  is  only  surpassed  iu  length  of  staple 
and  x)rice  by  the  Egyptian,  which,  in  these  respects,  comes  between  the  American 
upland  and  sea  island.  It  is  imjiorted  and  used  by  our  manufacturers  for  specific 
styles  of  goods,  in  increasing  (juantities;  in  the  fiscal  year  1896  a  total  of  43,609,625 
pounds,  valued  at  $5,131,967.  If  Egyptian  would  thrive  here,  a  limited  production 
would  be  desirable,  but  its  attempted  culture  has  not  hitherto  been  attended  with 
very  gratifying  success. 

Cotton  is  grown  in  several  countries  of  North  aud  South  America,  Asi:i,  and  Africa, 
aud  the  produce  of  each  has  its  peculiar  characteristics  and  uses,  yet  this  country, 
with  only  one-twentieth  of  the  world's  population,  produces  of  a  superior  qinility 
of  cotton  more  than  all  other  countries  together.  This  could  not  be  the  case,  in  this 
era  of  sharp  competition  by  cotton  manufacturing  countries  of  great  wealth  and 
enterprise,  were  not  our  advantages  for  production  superior  to  those  of  any  other 
country.  It  is  obviously,  then,  our  opportunity  and  duty  to  sui>i)ly  liberally  the 
needs  of  the  world's  consumption,  without  impairment  of  the  legitimate  profits  of 
our  cotton  growers  by  unnecessary  overproduction. 

CiLTiVATiox. — Climatic  conditions  generally  favorable  to  the  production  of  cotton 
are  found  south  of  a  line  which  crosses  the  country  a  little  below  latitude  37- .  North 
of  this  line  the  short  season  and  relatively  low  mean  temperature  are  uui'avorable; 
also  the  mountain  region,  altitudes  above  1,000  feet,  south  of  this  line. 

The  essential  features  of  a  climate  adapted  to  this  culture  are  that  the  season  must 
be  satficieutly  long  for  the  crop  to  mature.  One  of  the  most  important  factors  is  the 
probable  date  of  the  last  killing  frost  iu  the  spring  and  the  earliest  frost  in  the 
autumn,  for  the  first  killiug  frost  of  autumn  checks  the  active  growth  of  the  plant^ 
and  the  bolls  starting  at  this  time  Avill  not  develop  into  mature  fruit.  The  next 
important  consideration  is  the  amount  aud  distribution  of  heat  aud  rainfall.  By  the 
first  or  middle  of  August  the  plant  should  have  attained  its  full  vegetative  growth, 
aud  from  this  time  on  a  decreasing  temperature  between  day  aud  night  are  favorable 
to  the  production  of  a  maximum  crop,  by  checking  vegetative  growth  aud  inducing 
the  maturity  of  the  bolls.  During  the  earlier  period  the  rain  should  fall  iu  freiiuent 
showers  rather  than  iu  heavy  storms,  and  the  best  seasons  are  when  these  showers 
occur  at  night,  giving,  with  a  large  and  well-distributed  rainfall,  a  large  amount  of 
sunshine.  As  to  the  soil  selection,  cotton  is  at  present  cultivated  with  more  or  less 
success  on  nearly  all  kinds  of  soils  within  the  region  in  which  the  climatic  condi- 
tions are  favorable  to  its  growth  and  development.  It  is  grown  alike  on  light  sandy 
soils,  on  loams,  on  heavy  clay  soils,  and  on  bottom  lauds,  l)ut  not  with  equal  success 
on  all  these  ditit'erent  types  of  soil.  On  the  sandy  uplands  the  yield  of  cotton  is  usu- 
ally very  small;  on  clay  uplands,  especially  in  wet  seasons,  the  jilants  attain  large 
size,  but  yield  a  small  amount  of  lint  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  plants.  This  is 
also  likely  to  be  the  case  on  bottom  lands.  The  safest  soils  for  the  crop  are  mediuiu 
grades  of  loam.  On  the  bottom  lauds  in  very  favorable  seasons  the  crop  often  pro- 
duces a  very  large  yield,  but  i  t  is  not  so  certain,  and  iu  unfavorable  seasons  the  plants 
are  liable  to  disease  and  to  insect  ravages.     {Prof.  Milton  Whitney.) 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  183 

Formerly  little  attention  was  paid  to  the  matter  of  fertilizers,  though  the  mauurial 
valno  of  soilini>-  crops,  such  as  clover  and  peas,  of  fallowing  and  rotation,  was  well 
understood.  "lu  the  main,"'  says  Prof.  H.  C.  White,  -'the  great  bulk  of  the  cotton 
crop  previous  to  1860  may  be  said  to  have  T»een  grown  without  artiticial  fertilization 
and  mainly  upon  virgin  soils."  In  the  limits  of  this  brief  chapter  it  will  be  impos- 
sible to  make  a  comprehensive  statement  upon  so  vast  a  subject,  or  to  make  any 
statements  further  than  that  the  necessity  not  only  of  using  the  best  fertilizers,  but 
of  a  knowledge  of  the  chemistry  of  soil  fertility,  is  now  thoroughly  appreciated. 
Among  the  fertilizers  employed,  in  A-arious  combinations,  are  Peruvian  guano,  dis- 
solved bones,  land  plaster,  kainit,  acid  ])ho8phate,  the  phosphate  rocks,  barnyard 
manures,  the  many  forms  of  cottonseed  fertilizer,  as  lotted  seed,  meal  hulls,  ash, 
etc.,  and  others.  Those  interested  in  the  subject  should  consult  the  valuable  litera- 
ture i)ul>lished  by  the  Deiiartment  of  Agriculture,  and  especially  Professor  White's 
comprehensive  statements  on  the  manuring  of  cotton  in  The  Cotton  Plant,  to  which 
reference  has  already  been  made. 

Deep  plowing  and  subsoiling  have  generally  been  considered  essential  in  this  cul- 
ture. David  Dickson,  a  successful  Georgia  grower,  says  that  to  stand  a  two  weeks' 
drought,  a  cotton  plant  must  have  4  inches  depth  of  soil,  6  inches  depth  of  subsoil, 
well  broken,  and  for  every  additional  week  an  inch  more  of  soil  with  the  same  sub- 
soiling.  Spou  says:  In  India,  the  limit  as  to  the  depth  of  plowing  is  commonly 
about  6  inches;  in  America,  12  inches,  and  in  Guiana,  18  inches.  It  is  certain  that 
great  benetit  would  arise  from  stirring  the  soil  to  a  depth  of  even  30  inches,  the 
increased  penetration  of  the  roots  rendering  the  plant  mnch  more  independent  of 
drought,  and  other  external  intluences.  ''Subsoiling  and  deep  breaking  are  open 
to  question.  There  is  no  question  that  a  deep,  mellow  soil  is  to  be  preferred,  but  the 
efforts  to  obtain  it  are  limited  by  the  cost,  by  the  risk  of  injury  to  some  soils  through 
leaching,  and  to  others  by  bringing  sterile  earth  to  the  surface.  Sandy  soils  may 
suffer  in  the  tirst  way,  and  heavy  clays  in  the  second.  Experiments  to  determine 
the  A-alue  of  these  operations  are  coutiictiug  and  inconclusive."'     (Harry  Hammond.). 

The  same  difference  of  practice  and  opinion  prevails  regarding  the  time  of  prepar- 
ing the  land.  It  commences  in  November  and  continues  to  March  and  April,  though 
Mr.  Dickson  says  "the  land  should  l)e  broken  as  near  the  time  for  planting  as  prac-' 
ticable."'  After  plowing  and  harrowing,  the  universal  practice  is  to  throw  the  land 
into  beds  or  ridges.  The  plants  are  usually  left  2  to  3  inches  above  the  middle  of 
the  row,  which  in  4-foot  rows  gives  a  slope  of  an  inch  to  the  foot.  This  causes  the 
plow  in  cultivating  to  lean  from  the  plants,  to  go  deepest  in  the  nuddle  of  the  row, 
and,  as  a  consequence,  to  cut  fewer  roots.  Four  feet  is  the  usually  accepted  distance 
between  the  rows.  The  i)erfect  cotton  ]>]anter  is  not  yet  invented.  It  should  drop 
live  or  six  seed  in  a  single  line  at  regular  intervals,  say  a  foot  apart.-  In  very  dry 
seasons  a  narrow  and  deep  coulter  furrow,  the  dirt  closing  in  behind  it,  is  run  imme- 
diately in  advance  of  the  planter.  It  freshens  up  the  bed  and  assists  very  much  the 
germination  of  the  seed,     {Harry  Hammond.) 

The  once  universal  system  of  planting  by  hand,  though  still  in  vogue  on  areas  of 
scattered  distrilnition,  has  been  displaced  by  some  form  of  cotton-seed  planter  in  the 
great  centers  of  cultivation.  Intelligent  and  enterprising  cultivators  are  not  willino- 
to  depend  on  autiiiuated  methods.  Formerly,  after  ridging  and  opening  a  shallow  fur- 
row, seed  was  scattered  in  it  profusely,  partly  to  secure  a  stand  and  partly  as  fertil- 
izer for  the  young  plants,  the  superliuous  plants  to  be  chopped  out  with  a  hoe  to  any 
required  distance  apart.  This  method  requires  a  large  amount  of  seed.  Another 
plan  in  great  favor  was  the  marking  by  wheel  or  other  device  for  measurement,  for 
such  cavities  made  by  a  dibble  may  .seem  poptilar  with  those  who  deem  precision  in 
planting  essential.  So  various  have  been  these  methods  of  seeding,  combining  the 
idea  of  fertilization  with  germination,  that  the  quantity  of  seed  required  per  acre 
has  scarcely  ever  been  calculated  or  considered.  The  time  of  planting  ranges  from 
March  1  in  southern  Texas,  to  May  20  in  northeast  Georgia,  and  the  tirst  blooms 
appear  May  loin  southern  Texas  to  .July  25  in  northwest  Tennessee.    Several  hoeino-s 


184         USEFUL  FIBER  PLANTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 

are  necessary  to  keep  down  "^eeds,  and  the  plants  are  thinned  nntil  only  two  of  the 
stron<re.st  plants  remain  in  the  stand.  Each  hoeing  is  followed  hy  the  plow,  which 
throws  the  earth  around  the  stalk.  The  particular  practice  varies  greatly,  however, 
in  different  sections,  though  the  same  object  is  always  kept  in  view  to  keep  the  soil 
free  from  weeds  and  the  plants  growing. 

The  first  bolls  open  June  15  in  southern  Texas,  and  September  1.5  in  north  Arkansas. 
Picking  commences  in  the  two  sections  July  10  and  October  1.  respectively,  and  may 
continue  until  the  middle  of  December. 

Cotton  is  picked  by  hand,  notwithstanding  that  considerable  skill  and  capital  have 
been  expended  in  the  efforts  to  produce  a  machine  cotton  picker.  It  can  not  be  said 
that  any  of  these  machines  have  been  successful,  as  they  gather  limbs,  leaves,  and 
hulls,  necessitating  the  passing  of  the  whole  through  a  .separator.  As  high  as  333 
pounds  of  cotton  have  been  picked  per  day  by  one  man,  though  it  is  probable  that  100 
pounds  is  nearer  the  day's  work  of  the  average  plantation  laliorer.  The  picking  of 
the  crop  of  1894  was  estimated  to  have  cost  .$60,000,000.     ( Harnj  Hammond.) 

GiXNiXG  Cottons. — The  devices  for  separating  the  lint  from  the  seed  are  of  two 
classes.  The  first  class  is  known  as  roller  gins,  the  other  as  .saw  gins.  The  roller 
fin  is  the  most  ancient.  It  was  tised  from  the  earliest  times  by  the  Hindoos.  In  its 
simplest  form  it  consists  of  a  flat  stone,  on  which  the  seed  cotton  was  placed,  and  a 
wooden  roller,  moved  by  the  foot,  was  employed  to  press  the  .seed  out.  To  this  day 
two  small  rollers,  a  foot  long,  one  of  wood  and  the  other  of  iron,  geared  to  move  in 
opposite  directions  and  turned  by  hand,  are  used  in  India  to  separate  the  seed  from 
the  fiber.*  The  task  is  5  pounds  of  clean  cotton  a  day,  and  the  woman  who  performs 
it  receives  a  daily  wage  of  5  cents.  In  Sicily,  also,  two  grooved  cylinders,  turned 
by  hand,  are  still  used  to  pinch  out  the  seed.  In  the  Amoy  district  of  China  cotton 
is  said  to  be  cleaned  by  means  of  a  heavy  wooden  bow  suspended  from  a  l)ambo() 
frame  on  the  shoulders  of  the  operator,  who  feeds  the  cotton  aloug  a  board  with  his 
right  baud,  and  with  his  left  strikes  it  with  the  string  of  his  bow,  cleaning  from  50 
to  100  pounds  a  day,  at  a  wage  of  10  cents.  The  combination  of  the  roller  and  the  bow- 
string beater  may  be  observed  in  certain  of  the  modern  improved  roller  gins  used  for 
cleaning  the  long-staple  Sea  Island  cotton.  The  seed  cotton  is  fed  on  a  tattle  to  a 
leather  roller  (preferably  walrus  hide),  the  roughness  of  which  engages  the  fiber, 
Avhile  a  steel  plate  in  close  Juxtaposition  to  the  roller  prevents  the  passage  of  the 
seed  and  a  rapidly  vibrating  blade  knocks  them  out.  The  cleaned  seed  fall  through 
interstices  in  the  table,  and  the  lint  is  delivered  on  the  farther  side  of  the  roller. 
Only  cotton  with  naked  seed  has  been  successfully  ginned  in  this  way,  the  down  on 
ordinary  upland  seed  causing  them  when  agitated  to  adhere  to  each  other  and  pre- 
vents them  from  falling  through  the  openiugs  in  the  table.  The  construction  of  the 
roller  gin  has  undoubtedly  been  greatly  improved  in  recent  times,  esjiecially  as 
regards  the  ease  with  which  it  is  worked  and  the  quantity  of  cotton  it  cleans ;  but  it 
is  doubtful  if  the  quality  of  the  product  is  any  better  than  it  was  in  those  ancient 
days  when  the  Hindoos  extracted  with  it  the  delicate  fibers  with  which  they  made 
the  wonderful  tissues  called  the  "woven  wind."  The  saw  gin,  which  works  on 
another  principle,  is  the  machine  which,  in  its  improvements  and  modifications,  has 
separated  seed  from  fiber  almost  exclusively  for  a  hundred  years  of  American  cotton 
growing.  The  seed  cotton  is  held  in  a  box,  one  side  of  which  is  a  grate  of  steel  bars 
or  ribs.  Through  the  intervals  of  the  grate  a  number  of  thin  steel  disks  notched  on 
the  edge  and  miscalled  saws  rotate  rapidly.  The  notches  or  teeth  of  the  saws 
engage  the  fiber  and  pull  it  from  the  seed.  The  seed  as  they  are  cleaned  fall  to  the 
floor  through  a  slit  below  the  ribs.  Behind  the  cylinder  holding  the  saws  is  another 
and  a  larger  cylinder  (the  brush)  filled  with  bristles  in  contact  with  the  saws. 
Both  cylinders  rotate  in  the  same  direction.  The  brush  sweeps  from  the  saws  the 
fibers  they  have  detached,  and  the  draft  created  by  the  rapid  revolutions  of  the  two 
cylinders  blows  the  lint  out  to  a  distance  of  20  to  60  feet  from  the  end  of  the  gin, 
opposite  to  the  one  into  which  the  seed  cotton  is  fed.  The  defects  of  both  methods 
of  ginning  are  much  the  same.     Thev  fail  to  clean  the  lint  thoroughly  of  foreign 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  185 

snlistanres.  such  as  dust,  fragments  of  leaves,  etc.  Some  of  the  seed,  especially  the 
immature  seed  knowu  as  motes,  pass  through  with  the  lint.  The  fibers  may  be 
strained,  weakened,  or  even  broken,  or,  what  is  fully  as  bad,  crimped  and  knotted 
(termed  neps  or  naps)  by  improper  force  used  in  their  removal.  From  all  these 
causes  a  large  amount  of  waste  is  always  found  in  ginned  cotton.     {Harry  Hammond.) 

In  a  paper  entitled  "Treatise  upon  the  cotton  fiber  and  its  improAements."  sub- 
mitted at  a  meeting  of  the  New  England  Cotton  ^lanufacturers"  Association  at  Atlanta, 
Ga.,  October,  1895,  Edward  Atkinson,  referring  to  the  use  of  the  saw  gin,  says:  "\Ye 
take  three-cpiarters  of  the  life  out  of  our  cotton  by  our  nuirderous  method  of  treating 
it.  We  nearly  wear  it  oiat  before  we  l)egiu  to  weave  it."  And  asks,  ''"Would  it  not 
be  better  to  nip  these  libers  between  two  elastic  rolls,  to  draw  them  away  from  the 
seed  without  upsetting,  tangling,  and  cutting  them?"  He  argues  at  length  in  favor 
of  the  more  extended  cultivation  of  long-staple  varieties,  and  of  more  earnest  efforts 
to  improve  the  roller  gin,  using  the  latter  in  connection  with  the  recently  introduced 
cylinder  press. 

Baling. — The  standard  size  of  cotton  bale  in  this  country  is  54  by  27  inches, 
and  contains  about  500  pounds,  inclusive  of  bagging  and  ties,  or  about  475  to  480 
pounds  of  lint.  Formerly  weighing  300  pounds,  the  American  bale  has  grown  to  500 
l^ouuds.  The  Egyptian  bale  averaged  245  pounds  in  1855  and  714  in  1892.  In  Peru, 
Br.azil.  and  Persia  the  bales  run  from  175  to  220  jiounds,  and  in  Asiatic  Russia  from 
250  to  325  pounds.  India  averages  about  400  pounds,  and  the  density  of  the  bale  is 
so  much  greater  than  the  American  that  it  weighs  39  iiouiuls  to  the  cubic  foot,  while 
compressed  cotton  in  American  bales  is  less  than  35  pounds. 

The  bales  are  wrapped  in  jnte  bagging,  with  iron  bauds,  the  mere  covering  of  the 
cotton  adding  20  to  24  pounds  to  the  weight  of  the  bale.  Among  the  other  forms  of 
baling,  the  Dedrich  perpetual  press,  formerly  used  to  some  extent,  puts  up  the  cotton 
in  bales  of  100  pounds,  and  of  a  density  nearly  equal  to  that  obtained  by  the  com- 
l^resses.  The  Bessonette  cylindrical  cotton  bale  is  turned  out  by  a  self-feeding  pre.ss, 
which  receives  the  bat  of  lint  as  it  comes  from  the  condenser  upon  a  spool  between 
two  heavy  rollers.  The  friction  of  the  rollers  rotates  the  spool  and  winds  the  bat 
upon  it  so  tightly  as  to  press  out  nearly  all  the  air  and  to  form  the  roll  into  a  pack- 
age with  a  density  of  35  pounds  to  the  cubic  foot  and  of  uniform  size  and  shape 
throughout.  The  pressure  employed  is  only  25,000  pounds  to  the  liale,  against 
5,000,000  pounds  by  the  compress.  The  Bessonette  cylindrical  bale  is  of  uniform 
length,  with  a  diameter  of  14  inches  to  16  inches.  The  bales  are  covered  with  cotton 
cloth.  The  ends  are  capped  with  the  same  material,  held  in  place  by  a  small  hoop 
of  wire.  Xo  ties  are  used,  nor  are  they  necessary,  for  the  bale  retains  its  shape  Avith- 
out  them.  It  is  claimed  that  the  saving  by  the  use  of  this  bale  in  the  expense  of 
compressing,  handling,  insurance,  transportation,  etc.,  amounts  to  $4.2oper  bale,  and 
with  the  air  completely  pressed  out,  it  is  practically  fireproof.  See  The  Cotton 
Plant,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  "Washington,  1896. 

CoTTOX  MANUFACTURE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. — The  manufacture  of  cotton  goods 
in  the  United  States,  exclusive  of  hosiery,  knit  goods,  mixed  textiles,  cordage  and 
twine,  required  in  1890  2,216,000  bales  of  cotton,  used  in  905  establishments,  having 
221,585  employees.  The  value  of  materials  used  was  $154,912,979,  and  of  products 
$267,981,724.  The  number  of  spindles  was  14,550,323,  an  increase  of  3,896,888  in  ten 
years;  nearly  three-fourths  in  the  New  England  States,  and  over  one-tenth  in  the 
Southern,  where  the  increase  has  of  late  l)eeu  very  rapid. 

The  percentages  of  cost  of  manufacture  were  :  43.81  for  cotton,  14  for  other  mate- 
rials, 6.24  for  miscellaneous  expense,  25.93  for  labor,  and  10.02  for  depreciation  and 
profit.  The  finer  grades  are  mostly  made  in  the  New  England  States,  where  the 
quantity  of  cotton  used  per  spindle,  indicating  degree  of  fineness,  was  65.95  pounds, 
78.46  in  the  Middle,  147.55  in  the  Western,  and  161.41  in  the  Southern  States.  The 
development  of  all  branches  of  cotton  manufacture  was  active  until  arrested  by 
recent  depression,  and  equal  progress  may  be  exjiected  in  the  future. 


186  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

Bast  Fiber. — Like  all  the  species  of  Malracew,  the  stalks  of  the  cotton  plant  con- 
tain in  their  bark  a  fine  jute-like  liber.  This  has  at  different  times  attracted  the 
attention  of  industrialists,  and  various  attempts  have  been  made  to  hrmrr  it  into  nse. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  if  the  plants  were  thrown  thickly,  like  hemp,  so  as  to  shoot  up 
slender  and  branchless,  that  a  j-ood  tiber  could  be  prepared  from  them.  The  experi- 
ments, however,  have  been  conducted  with  the  old  bushy  stalks  remaining  in  the 
field  after  the  lint  cotton  harvest. 

\  In  the  collection  of  fibers  sent  to  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1889  was  a  line  example 
of  the  fiber  of  the  cotton  stalk,  from  a  plant  grown  by  Gov.  .1.  B.  Gordon,  of  Georgia, 
prepared  by  the  American  Coiisolidated  Fiber  Company,  from  a  green  stalk,  sixty 
days  from  date  of  planting.  In  the  letter  transmitting  the  specimen  it  was  stated 
that  "the  tiber  is  not  only  good  for  thread,  but  for  a  thousand  other  purposes;  it  is 
a  splendid  liber  for  paper  also,  as  it  will  not  tear  as  easily  as  that  made  from  wood 
pulp  or  rags."  There  is  no  donbt  that  this  liber  would  make  an  admirable  twine, 
though  its  use  in  "thread"  is  somewhat  overstated.  It  possesses  fair  strength, 
specimens  I  have  examined  by  hand  tests  appearing  somewhat  stronger  than  Jute. 
The  fiber  of  old  stalks  that  have  stood  iu  the  field  is  of  varying  shades  of  russet 
in  color,  while  that  from  fresh  stalks  is  a  yellow  white. 

The  antagonism  of  the  farmers  of  the  South  to  the  jute  trust,  in  1890,  called 
renewed  attention  to  unutilized  Southern  fibers  for  the  manufacture  of  bagging  with 
which  to  bale  the  cotton  crop,  the  price  of  bagging  having  been  advanced  from  7 
to  12  cents  per  yard.  Various  fibers  were  suggested  as  substitutes  for  the  India 
product,  and  among  them  the  bast  of  cotton  stalks,  which,  it  was  claimed,  could  be 
supplied  "from  the  18,000,000  acres  of  cotton  fields"  in  cultivation  iu  the  South. 
Among  those-who  exjierimented  with  this  fiber  in  manufacture  was  William  E  Jack- 
son, of  Augusta,  Ga.,  who  gave  considerable  attention  to  the  enterprise,  a  company 
having  been  organized  to  carry  on  Ihe  work.  According  to  the  statement  made  the 
fiber  was  separated  "on  a  machine  which  was  patented  and  perfected  for  South 
American  fiber  experiments,"  the  name  of  the  inventor  not  having  been  given.  The 
princiide  consisted  in  "running  the  bast  between  a  corrugated  concave  bed,  the 
charge  Itetween  being  washed  by  a  fiowiug  stream  of  water  to  wash  away  the  resi- 
due of  gum  and  bark." 

Nothing  was  said  as  to  the  proposed  method  of  harvesting  the  stalks,  further  than 
that  fiber  shown  was  taken  from  stalks  that  had  been  gathered  late  in  February, 
after  exposure  to  the  weather  for  several  months.  The  fiber  luoduced  from  these 
stalks  was  sent  to  Mr.  J.  C.  Todd,  of  Paterson,  N.  J.,  for  manufacture,  a  few  yards 
having  been  prepared  experimentally.  During  a  visit  to  the  factory  in  Paterson  a 
few  months  later,  I  was  able  to  secure  from  the  loom  whence  it  was  made  a  small 
specimen  of  the  bagging,  which  is  preserved  in  the  collection  of  the  Department. 
The  fiber,  which  showed  fair  strength,  was  reddish  iu  color,  or  a  bright  russet, 
though  the  sample  exhibited  at  Paris  approached  nearer  to  straw  color. 

Like  many  other  similar  enterprises,  the  anticipated  results  were  not  realized, 
and  it  is  doubtful  if  the  harvesting  of  such  rough  and  uneven  material  could  be 
accomplished  at  economical  cost,  even  if  such  stalks  or  branches  could  be  success- 
fully decorticated.  A  machine  constructed  to  operate  upon  straight,  clean  stalks, 
half  an  inch  or  more  in  diameter,  grown  rapidly  and  close  together  in  the  field,  such 
as  hemp  stalks,  could  hardly  be  expected  to  work  smoothly  ujion  the  rough,  irregularly 
shaped  branches  and  often  crooked  material  that  would  be  yielded  by  cotton  plants 
grown  primarily  for  lint  cotton. 

The  only  further  reference  to  the  economic  use  of  the  bast  of  the  cotton  stalk  for 
fiber  is  in  tht;  Die.  Ec.  Prod.  Ind.,  Vol.  IV.  "The  stem  yields  a  good  fiber,  which 
may  be  separated  by  retting.  Several  writers  have  alluded  to  this  subject  and 
reconunended  its  utilization,  but  apparently  the  people  of  India  are  not  aware  of 
this  fact,  since  no  mention  is  made  of  their  ])utting  it  to  any  useful  purpose."  As  a 
native  use,  however,  should  be  mentioned  the  employment  of  the  bark  of  Gosaypiuni 
tomcntosum  in  the  Sandwich  Islands  for  rude  twine. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  187 

Goiin  (BurDi.).     See  Boehmcria. 
Grama  China.     Mulilenhergia  imngens. 
Grass  fibers. 

While  librous  substance  is  extracted  from  many  species  of  Uramineiv,  the  family  of 
trne  grasses,  the  term  is  frequently  applied  to  fibers  derived  from  plants  that  are 
grasses  in  no  sense  of  the  word,  and  it  is  therefore  misleading.  Examples:  "China 
grass,"'  the  liber  from  a  tall  shrnb  {Boehmeria);  "Sisal  grass,"' the  fiber  from  a  tleshy- 
leaved  Agave,  and  "  Sillc  grass,'"  which  may  mean  Bromelia  fiber,  or  almost  anything. 

Grass  tree. 

Resin ,  Xanthorrhaa  ansiralis ;  dwarf ,  X.  minor,  l)oth  of  Dr.  Guilfoyle's^ 

Australasian  lists. 

Gre"wia  asiatica  et  sp.  div. 

This  genus  of  Tiliacea'  comprises  shrubs  or  small  trees  that  are  natives  of  the  trop- 
ical and  subtropical  regions  of  Asia  and  Africa;  also  found  in  the  Malayan  Archi- 
pelago.    The  species  that  have  been  recognized  as  fiber  producing  are  as  follows : 

G.  asiaiica  (Ind.  and  Ceyl.).     Bast  fiber  much  employed  in  rope  making. 

G.  hrvigata  (Ind.,  Malay  Is.,  Austr..  and  tropical  Afr.).  The  fiber  is  used  for  cord- 
age in  Kanara. 

G.  microcos  (Ind.).     Lisboa  includes  this  species  in  his  list  of  fibrous  plants  (  Wait). 

G.  opjjosiii folia  (N.  W.  Himalayas,  Ind.).  A  coarse  fiber,  made  from  the  bark,  is 
used  for  ropes  and  nets.  "  It  is  neither  very  strong  nor  dural)le  nor  to  be  had  in  any 
quantity"'  (Trans.  Agri.  Hort.  Soc  Ind.).     Has  been  employed  in  paper  making. 

G.  occidental  is  (S.  Afr.).  Kaffir  hemp.  "A  white  fiber  of  great  strength  extracted 
by  retting,  and  much  used  by  the  Kaffirs"  (Spon). 

G.  scahroplujlla  (Ind.).     Said  to  yield  a  fiber  suitable  for  ropes. 

G.  tilia'folia  (Ind.  and  Ceyl.).  The  bark  yields  a  cordage  fiber.  Routledge 
describes  the  fiber  as  "strong,  harsh,  Aviry,  and  hard."  Would  not  pay  to  exjiort  it 
for  paper  making. 

Gru  gru;  also  written  Groo  (jroo  and  Gri  gri  (W.  Ind.).     SieeAcrocomia^ 
There  is  confusion  in  the  use  of  these  names.     The  Kew  Mus.  Guide  gives  Astro- 
carijum  acuJeatum  as  the  Gri-gri,  and  Acrocomia  sclerocarpa  as  the  Gru-gru. 

Guaniara  (Mex.).     ^qq  Bromelia lyinguin. 

Guano  yarey  (Cuba).     See  reference  under  Thrinax  argentea. 

Guaxinduba. 

The  bark  of  this  Brazilian  tree,  species  not  identified,  when  beaten  yields  a  kind 
of  cloth  which  has  been  used  by  some  of  the  Bolivian  tribes  as  a  dress  material. 

Guayubera  americana. 

Included  in  Dr.  Niederlein"s  list  of  Argentina  species.     I  have  not  seen  the  fiber. 
Guayuco  (clothing).     Colombia.     See  Couratari. 
Guazuma  tonientosa. 

Endogen.     Sterculiacew.     A  small  tree,  20  to  25  feet. 

Tropical  America  and  India. 

This  species  is  known  to  the  French  colonists  of  the  West  Indies  as  Orme  (VAmer- 
iqiie,  and  in  India  and  Jamaica  as  bastard  cedar.  Dr.  Roxburgh  experimented  with 
the  fiber  of  this  species,  and  found  it  to  show  considerable  strength,  has  been  more 
recently  examined  and  thought,  with  cultivation,  to  afford  a  good  cordage  fiber.     In 


188 


USEFUL,    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


Jamaica  the  tree  is  only  re::aided  as  useful  on  account  of  foliage  and  frnir,  which  are 
stock  food,  and  for  its  timber. 

iriiazitma  iilmifolia,  fiue  samples  of  the  fiber  of  which  wore  exhibited  in  the  Mexi- 
can exhibit  of  the  AV.  C.  E.,  1X93,  is  known  in  Mexico  as  HiuLsima.  Mr.  St.  Hill,  who 
sent  a  sample  of  tiber  to  the  Department  in  1871,  states  that  the  species  is  found  in 
Trinidad.  Samples  of  roufrh  cinnamon-colored  bast  of  this  species  are  preserved  in 
the  P>i)t.  Mus.  Harv.  I'uiv. 


Gruembipi  (Aig.).     See  Fhilodendron. 


Guilielma  speciosa.     The  Peach 
Palm. 

Endogen.  Palma.  Tree,  60  to  80  feet. 
Native  of  Venezuela  and  Guiana.  The 
species  is  chielly  valued  for  its  fruit,  which 
is  eaten  by  the  natives,  and  which  is  pre- 
pared in  several  ways.  Dr.  Ernst  includes 
the  species  in  his  list  of  Venezuelan  fiber 
plants.  (See  tig.  61.)  The  revised  name  of 
this  palm  is  J^actris  f/asipacs.     See  I'xictris. 

Guiniauve.     Frencli  name  for  the 
^Mallow,  which  see. 


Guineo  (Veiiez. 
fion. 


See  Miisa  xiipicn- 


Gurnbo  and  Gombo.  the Okra  (see 
Hibiscus  escidentiis). 

Gunda-gilla  (Ind.).     See  Bauhinia 
inacrosUa-hi/a,  under  B.  racemosa. 

Gurach,  or  Gurcha  (Hind.).    Tino- 
spora  cordifoJia. 

Guyetta.     Eilaria  jdmesii. 
Gymnostachys  anceps. 

a  grasslike  araceous  i)lant.  found  in  New 
South  Wales,  calledTraveller's  grass;  "dis- 
tinguished for  its  extraordinary  tenacity." 
{Savorcjnan.) 

Gynerium  argenteum.      Pa3IPAs  grass. 

Endogen.     (riamiiua.     A  giant  grass  or  reed. 

A  native  of  the  vast  plains  of  South  America,  particularly  Uruguay,  Paraguay,  and 
La  Platte.  Introduced  into  cultivation  as  an  ornamental  plant  in  many  countries. 
The  leaves  have  been  used  in  paper  making. 

The  leaves  of  (i.  saccharoides  have  been  made  into  hats  in  Dominica  and  from  the 
Rio  Casiquiare. 

Hair  moss.     Folytriclnim  commune. 

Haifa,  or  Alfa  (Alg.).     Stijxi  tenacissima. 

Han  (Hawaii).     See  Hibiscus  tiliaceus. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  189 

Hana  (Ceyl.)-     Yuccd  (jloriosa. 

Hana-inushiro  matting  (Jap.).     See  Cypcrns  unifans. 

Hanf  (Ger.).     CannahLs  ,sativa. 

Hapu-Ili  (Hawaii).     See  Cihotinm. 

Harakeke.     Xo.  l*,  common  var.     ^STeAV  Zealand  tlax.     See  Phorininm 
tenax. 

Hardwickia  binata. 

Exogeu.     Ltgiimhiosa'.     A  tree,  100  feet. 
.South  aud  central   India.     A  forest  tree  related  to  the  Copaiva  balsam  trees  of 
South  America.     It  is  recorded  hy  Dr.  George  Watt  as  a  strong  cordage  liber  and 
used  without  any  special  preparation  by  the  natives  Trhere  it  abounds.     Also  used, 
for  paper.     "A  valuable  tiber  for  cordage  purposes"  (Spon"). 

Hatirauka"wa.     New  Zealand  tlax.     Phontiiion  tenax. 

Hechima  (Jap.).     Sponge  cucumber.     See  Lujfa. 

Heii  (Hawaii).     Vihoihon  menzieslL 

Helianthus  annuus.     The  Sunflowee. 

Exogeu.     Composltd .     Tall-growing  herb. 

Said  to  be  a  native  of  Mexico  and  Peru.  Introduced  into  Eurojie  about  the  end  of 
the  sixteenth  century.     Cultivated  in  America,  Europe,  and  in  India. 

Fiber. — It  has  frequently  been  the  subject  of  experiment  in  this  country  as  a 
fiber-producing  i)lant,  though  I  have  seen  no  samjiles  of  its  fiber  that  would  pay  for 
the  preparation,  or  that  would  serve  any  useful  end  when  prepared,  unless  for  paper 
stock,  and  there  are  many  American  plants  better  adapted  for  this  purpose.  Never- 
theless, Spon  states  that  the  plant  would  repay  culture  for  the  fiber  yielded  from  its 
stems.  About  6  ^lounds  of  seed  are  required  for  an  acre.  In  a  note  from  Dr.  Havard 
it  is  stated  that  the  strong  fiber  in  the  stem  forms  a  useful  material  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  rough  wrapijing  paper.  There  is  no  longer  any  dotibt  about  the  plant  being 
a  native  of  the  United  States. 

H.  tiiberosus,  the  Jerusalem  artichoke,  is  said  by  Balfour  to  yield  fiber  in  its  stems. 

Heliconia  bihai.     Balizier. 

The  species  of  this  genus  of  JfHsacetc  inhabit  tropical  America.  A  specimen  of  the 
fiber  was  sent  to  the  Dejiartment  from  Trinidail  in  1891,  by  Mr.  St.  Hill,  Avho  gives 
the  following  facts  concerning  it: 

A  wild  plant  which  grows  on  cool  soil,  and  its  presence  indicates  superior  land. 
The  process  of  curing  or  obtaining  the  fiber  is  the  same  as  that  for  the  plantain  or 
banana.  The  blades,  which  resemble  the  blades  of  the  plantain,  produce  the  fiber, 
but  the  blades  grow  from  the  roots  of  the  bush  like  a  pineapple,  and  they  are  6  to  10 
feet  long.  One  acre  will  produce  about  10.000  blades,  and  each  blade  will  produce 
half  an  ounce  of  fiber.  It  is  a  coarse  fiber,  not  so  strong  as  the  other  fibers  men- 
tioned, but  Avould  be  good  for  door  mats  aud  similar  purposes.  It  may  be  reaped, 
annually  after  three  years.     Not  produced  commercially. 

Heliocarpus  americanus. 

Exogeu.     Tiliacew.     A  tree. 

The  representatives  of  the  genus  are  confined  to  Mexico,  Central  America,  aud 
Colombia. 

Fiber. — Specimens  of  a  number  of  these  tree  basts  were  examined  by  me  in  the 
Mexican  Court,  W.  C.  E.,  1893.     Two  fibers  bearing  the  names  of  Jonoti:  and  Jolocin 


190  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

have  siuce  been  identified  by  Dr.  Jose  Rauiirez.  of  the  National  Institute,  Mexico,  as 
H.  ainer'tcaiiKS  and  H.  arhoresccus,  respectively.  Considered  as  tree  basts,  tbey  -^ere 
rated  about  75  points  out  of  100,  for  strength,  color,  care  in  preparation,  and  utility. 
The  uses  of  the  fibers  were  not  learned,  though,  doubtless,  tliey  are  only  valuable  for 
rough  native  cordage  and  mats,  and  as  jiaper  stock. 

Specimens  of  a  tree  bast  named  Tolotzin,  or  Catena,  and  referred  to  H.  mexicana, 
■were  secured  by  me  in  the  Mexican  court,  Paris  Exp.  Univ.,  1889,  said  to  make  line 
paper,  and  at  that  time  claiming  special  attention.     The  fiber  was  sent  from  Tabasco. 

*»SjjfCi»ieHx. — Mus.  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag. ;  a  fine  example  of  the  yellowish  bast  of  H.  amcri- 
caniis  is  preserved  in  the  Bot.  Mus.  Harv.  I'niv. 

Hemp. 

The  hemp  plant  proper  is  ('(Dinahis  safira,  or  common  hemp.  It  has  also  been  known 
in  ditierent  parts  of  the  world  by  the  following  prefixes:  American,  Breton,  English, 
Himalayan,  Italian,  Japanese,  Kentucky.  Persian,  Petersburg,  nnd  Russian  (liempl. 
The  many  other  hemps  are  : 

Ambari ,  Hibiscus  ccinnnbinu-s;  Bengal,  or  Bombay ,  Crotuhiriu  jitiicia; 

Black-fellow's  ,  Commensonia  fraseri ;  Bowstring ,  o'i  XivQK^~Sun^cncria 

gitineeusia ;  of  Indi.i,  >'.  roxbiirf/hiiuin  and  S.  zeylaiiica  :  Florida  bowstring ,  S. 

longiliora ;  Brown ,  Hibiscus  cannahiuuf  ;  Calcutta (erroneously,  for  jute), 

Co/'c/ior«s  spp. ;  Cebu  ,  Musa  tvxtiliis ;  Colorado  River  ,  Sisbania  vuicro- 

carpa:  Cretan  ,  Datima    caunabiiia;    Cuba   ,   Fitixraa  ciibensis;   Deccan 

.  Hibiscus  cannabinus;   False  ,  American,  Ixhits  tiiphina,  not  described  in 

this  catalogue;  False  sisal ,  Agave  decipiens ;  Giant ,  of  Cbina,  Cannabis^ 

gigantea  (Bernardiu's  Cat.),  not  described  iu  this  catalogue  ;    Hayti  ,  Agave 

fatida  (Bernardiu's  Cat.),  synonym  of  Fiircnva  gigantea ;  Ife {aev  Sansevieria 

cylindvica) ;  Indian (see  Apocyntun  cannabiniim) ;  Jubbulpore ,  <'rot(iJaria 

teniiifolia;  Ko  ,  Japan  (see  P"<>rrtrirt) ;  Koukan (see  Cvotalaria);  Madras 

,  Cvotalaria  ienuifoUd;  Manila ,  Musa  textilis :  New  Zealand (erro- 
neously for  New  Zealand  flax)  Phormium  tciiax :  Pangane  ,  Sansevieria  kirkii ; 

Pita ,  Yucca  spp.,  also  Furcraa ;  Pua  ,  India,  ilaoutia  puga;  Queens- 
land  .  Sidareiusa  et  spp. ;  Rangoon .  Liipovtca  gigas  (Bernardiu's  Cat.); 

Eoselle ,  Hibiscus  sabdarifa ;  Sisal  ,  Agave  vigida  and  its  varieties,  sisa- 

lana  and  itongnta;  Sunn  ,   Crotalavia  juncea  ;  Swedish  ,    I'viica  dioicn ; 

Tampieo ,  Agave  lietevacantha;  Water ,  Kupitiovium  caunahinum  and  JUdens 

tripavtita,  the  latter  not  described  in  this  catalogue ;  Wild (see  ATaoutia  puga). 

Henequen. 

The  use  of  agave  fiber  on  this  eontinent  goes  so  far  back  into  the  jiast  that  there 
are  no  records  to  show  when  its  use  began.  Among  the  Aztecs  "maguey"  fiber  and 
the  fiber  derived  from  iialm  leaves,  known  as  "icxotle''  and  "izhuate,"  were  woven 
into  coarse  cloths,  the  maguey  being  also  known  as  "nequen,"  the  orthography  of 
-which  is  not  greatly  different  from  the  word  "benequen,"  -which  is  to-day  the  Mexi- 
can name  of  sisal  hemp.  Agave  vigida,  which  see  for  description  and  uses  of  the  fiber. 
See  also  Ancient  Fibers  in  Introduction. 

Hibiscus. 

Avery  large  genus  of  plants,  containing  many  important  fiber-yielding  species, 
and  belonging  to  the  Malvacew  which  includes  commercial  cotton.  The  plants  are 
tall  shrubs  distinguished  by  their  large  showy  fiowers,  the  Rose  Mallow  and  Okra 
being  representative  American  species.  The  species  of  this  genus  abound  in  all 
countries,  and  no  fiber  list  may  be  examined  that  does  not  include  from  one  to  a 
-dozen.  While  the  fibers  of  some  of  the  foreign  species  are  classed  as  hemps,  the 
native  forms  yield  hardly  more  than  jute  substitutes,  as  the  fiber  resembles  jute 
more  than  hemp. 

It  is  unimportant  to  treat  specially  the  many  species  of  the  genus  which  have  been 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATAL0C4UE.  191 

recorded  as  yielding  fiber.  The  principal  species  are  fully  descriljed  in  the  appro- 
priate j)lace  under  their  scientific  names,  and  it  vrill  only  be  necessary  to  give  brief 
mentions  to  a  few  of  the  others  that  have  been  recorded  in  the  literature  of  the  sub- 
ject. Among  the  earlier  specimens  of  fiber  received  by  the  Department  are  those 
from  H.  rosa-shicnsis,  the  Chinese  rose,  and  H.  JHlifloi-us,  source  unknown.  Speci- 
mens of  the  following  species  were  received  from  the  Australian  exhibits  of  the 
Phil.  Int.  Exh.,  1876:  H.  sorhifolla,  H.  ieiraciis,  and  H.  mutahilis.  A  Victorian  species 
is  H.  hcterophyllKs,  "the  bark  of  which  is  rich  iu  fiber  of  good  quality."  {Dr. 
Gmlfoyle.)  The  two  first  named  species  are  not  found  in  the  Kew  Index,  l)ut  Dr. 
Gnilfoyle's  label  names  are  retained  on  the  specimens  iu  the  museum,  and  so  referred 
"to  here. 

Spon  mentions  Indian  species  as  follows :  H.  fni'catMS  is  found  in  the  southern 
province  of  India  and  in  the  interior  of  Eengal.  The  bark  yields  an  abundance  of 
strong  white  fibers ;  a  line  broke  at  89  pounds  dry  and  92  pounds  wet.  The  stems  are 
■cut  when  the  plant  is  flowering,  and  steeped  at  once.  U.  Jlcuhteus,  native  of  Bengal, 
with  a  straight  stem  6  to  14  feet  high,  and  Aery  smooth  bark,  thrives  luxuriantly 
with  little  or  no  care,  yet  is  very  little  cultivated  for  its  fiber.  The  seed  is  sown  in 
beds  in  May,  and  when  the  plants  are  6  inches  high  they  are  set  out  in  rows, 
t)  inches  apart  each  way.  The  luxuriant  growth  and  habits  of  the  plant  commend  it 
to  serious  attention.  H.  ritifolhis,  common  all  over  India,  is  ;i  wild  plant  yielding  a 
very  white,  fine  and  strong  fiber,  extracted  by  retting.  Other  Indian  sjiecies  from 
which  fiber  has  been  extracted  are:  H.  coWunts,  H.  siiratfensis,  and  H.  tricusjiis. 
H.  Indungii  is  a  native  of  south  Africa,  and  yields  a  fiber  of  great  toughness.  H.  siiJ- 
phureiis  is  a  Venezuela  species  mentioned  in  Dr.  Ernst's  list  of  fibers.  Many  others 
might  be  named,  but  the  present  list  will  suffice. 

Vdtillart  states  that  the  fiber  of  Hihlsciifi,  when  minutely  examined  iu  glycerin, 
appears  as  a  bundle,  the  filaments  strongly  united  together,  so  much  so  that  they  are 
-vfith.  difficulty  separated  even  after  treatment  in  an  alkaline  solution.  The  fibers 
are  short,  stiff,  and  brittle;  of  sufficient  fineness,  but  irregular  in  size,  even  in  the 
same  specimens.  The  central  cavity,  usually  narrow,  is  prominent;  cells  generally 
terminating  in  fringed  points,  sometimes  having  notches  or  siniiosities  in  their  out- 
lines; some  are  large,  ribboned,  and  creased,  the  exterior  surface  striated.  These 
last  have  very  slender  walls,  which  explain  the  creases.  Viewed  transversely  with 
n  high  power  the  fibers  are  seen  to  be  polygonal,  with  sharp  angles  and  straight 
sides,  the  polygons  jiressed  compactly  together.  The  walls  are  thick  and  the  central 
•cavity  round  or  oval. 

Hibiscus  abelmoschus.    The  Musk  Mallow. 

Exogen.     Mahacew.     A  herbaceous  bush. 

Common  throughout  the  hotter  parts  of  India,  two  forms  being  recognized  iu  the 
Indian  Flora,  A'ar.  1,  viuUiformis,  and  var.  2,  betiilifoHu.s,  according  to  George  AVatt. 

Bast  Fiber. — In  a  series  of  experiments  made  by  the  Agricultural  Horticultural 
Society  of  India,  at  the  re(|iiest  of  the  Government,  it  was  shown  that  the  fiber  of  H. 
<ibelmoschiis  yielded  the  best  crop  of  all  fiber-yielding  plants  under  experiment.  AVith 
a  Death  and  Ellwood  machine  a  yield  of  800  pounds  of  fiber  to  the  acre  was  recorded. 
The  society  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  the  cultivation  of  this  jilant  offered  no 
advantages  over  jute. 

Hibiscus  arboreus.    The  Mahaut. 

I  have  not  been  able  to  verify  this  species.  Described  by  Squier  as  growing  to  the 
height  of  16  to  18  feet.  He  states  that  '•  its  bark  is  tough,  and  not  much,  if  at  all, 
inferior  to  hemp  for  many  purposes ;  Avhite,  soft,  and  apparently  adapted  to  the  man- 
ufacture of  paper.  Uses  locally  for  making  rojies.''  "The  celebrated  Cuban  bast- 
wood,  the  bark  of  which  furnishes  a  coarse  but.  strong  cordage,  iu  universal  use 
wherever  a  rope  or  string  is  needed  and  which  is  not  a  bad  substitute  for  chains; 


192         USEFUL  FIBER  PLANTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 

growu  iu  consiilerable  (|u;>utity  at  Samaua.  (Sauto  Doiuiugo)  and  "^as  seen  more 
sparingly  along  strt-amg  in  the  monntains"  {Charles  iVrcjhi).     See  H.  elatus. 

Hibiscus  cannabinus.    Ambari  He3ip.  t  r,  y^  v  v 

This  is  the  most  valuable  species  of  the  genus.  The  plant  is  a  native  of  the  East 
Indies,  and  at  i^reseut  is  lai-,u.ely  cultivated  for  fiber  throughout  India,  the  product 
being  almost  wholly  utilized  by  the  agricultural  classes  where  grown  as  a  substi- 
tute for  hemp.  Its  common  names  are  Deccan  hemjj  and  Ambari  hemji,  the  latter 
jjarticularly  in  western  Imlia.  In  Madras  it  is  called  Pahiiitjoo.  It  is  the  llesta  j;«f  (if 
Bengal,  and  Deccan  or  Ambari  hemp  of  Bombay.  The  Sanskrit  name  is  XdlHa.  The 
plant  has  a  prickly  stem,  the  leaves  deeply  parted,  and  the  stem  attains  a  height  of 
6  to  8  feet. 

Bast  Fibkr. — The  tiber  is  described  as  soft,  white,  and  silky,  and  by  some  writers 
is  said  to  be  more  durable  than  jute  for  the  coarser  textiles.  "It  is  largely  grown 
by  the  natives  of  India  and  employed  for  agricultural  purposes — ropes,  strings,  and 
sacks  being  made  from  it.  The  length  of  the  extracted  liber  varies  between  5  and 
10  feet.  The  fiber  is  somewhat  stiff  and  brittle,  and  thouLih  used  as  a  substitute  for 
hemp  and  jnte^  it  is  inferior  to  both^  The  breaking  strain  has  been  variously  stated 
at  115  to  190  pounds.  It  is  bright  and  glossy,  but  coarse  and  harsh.  It  is  sold  with 
and  as  .jute,  and  is  employed  in  Bengal  for  the  purposes  of  jute,  including  fishing 
nets  and  paper.  Samples  of  the  fiber  exi)osed  for  two  hours  to  steam  at  2  atmos- 
pheres, followed  by  boiling  iu  water  for  three  hours,  and  again  steamed  for  four 
hours,  lost  only  3.63  per  cent  by  weight,  as  against  llax,  3..")0;  mauila  hemp,  6.07; 
hemp,  6.18  to  8.44;  jute,  21.39."     (TTcitt.) 

The  fibers  of  carefully  prepared  Ambari  are  from  5  to  6  feet  long.  Compared 
with  ordinary  hemp  they  are  paler  Itrowu,  harsher,  adhere  closer  together,  though 
divisible  into  fine  fibrils,  jiossessed  of  considerable  strength.  Its  tenacity  tested 
with  sunn  is  as  115  to  130.  "Fiber  stiff  and  lirittle,  has  no  superiority  over  jute, 
and  it  is  very  inferior  to  that  of  India  hemp  or  sunn"  (  Vt'tiUari).  A  roughly  jire- 
pared  sample  of  bast  from  this  species  was  sent  to  the  Department  from  the  Alabama 
Experiment  Station  in  Jlay,  1890. 

CULTiv.\Tl()X. — Though  thriving  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  it  is  generally  culti- 
vated iu  the  cold  season.  The  seeds  are  sown  as  thickly  as  hemp,  in  rich,  loose  soil, 
and  it  requires  about  three  months'  growth  before  it  is  ready  to  be  pulled  for 
"watering"  and  dressing,  the  mode  of  treatment  being  the  same  as  that  given  the 
sunn  hemp,  Crotalarla  juncea  (.see  p.  139).  Full-grown  jilauts  that  have  rijiened  their 
seed  furnish  stronger  fiber  than  the  plants  cut  while  in  llower,  thoui;h  the  fibers  of 
this  species  are  more  remarkable  for  their  liuoness  than  for  strength. 

In  harvesting  the  plants  are  either  cut  close  to  the  ground  or  pulled  up  by  the 
roots,  as  the  lower  portion  of  the  stem  contains  the  best  fiber.  The  stalks  are  sub- 
merged in  water  and  allowed  to  remain  from  six  to  ten  days,  according  to  the 
weather,  when  the  bark  can  be  readily  peeled  by  the  hand.  Too  long  steeping, 
while  it  makes  white  fiber,  results  iu  a  loss  of  strength. 

The  fiber  is  prepared  by  bundling  the  stalks,  which,  after  a  few  days,  are  steeped 
for  nearly  a  week  iu  water  under  stones.  "When  sufficiently  retted  they  are  cleaned 
by  beating  them  on  the  ground,  the  fiber  is  stripped  off,  washed,  and  dried.  Five 
hundred  stems  about  8  feet  high,  as  grown  en  masse  in  gardens,  were  recently 
taken  at  random  and  the  fiber  removed  and  cleaned  in  the  usual  way.  The  result 
was  5i  iiounds  clean  and  good  fiber.  The  stems  when  carefully  dried  weighed 
nearly  20  pounds.  Assuming  the  acre  to  be  40,000  square  feet  after  allowing  for 
waste  patches  the  number  of  stems  at  3  inches  apart  woitld  be  640,000,  hence  the 
yield  in  clean  fiber  at  1  pound  per  100  would  be  6,400  pounds,  equal  to  2^  tons. 
The  stems  would  yield  also  11  tons  of  poor  fuel.  (From  Report  Rev.  and  Ag.  Dept. 
of  India.) 

Uses. — A  coarse  sackcloth  is  made  from  its  fiber  in  India  (sometimes  called 
gunny),  though  its  chief  employment  is  for  ropes  and  cordage,  it  being  the  common 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE. 


193 


cordage  of  the  country  in  a  few  districts.  Coarse  canvas  is  also  made  from  it.  lu 
Bengal  it  is  employed  at  the  present  time  for  all  the  purposes  of  jute  and  also  for 
making  fish  nets  and  jiaper.  There  is  no  doubt,  however,  that  it  is  less  cultivated 
than  in  Iioxburgh's  time,  or  even  at  a  later  period  when  Koylc's  work  was  published, 
and  before  jute  cauie  into  commercial  promiuence.  In  the  catalogue  of  the  Indian 
department,  Loud.  Exh.,  1862,  it  is  stated  that  every  ryot  sows  a  small  quantity 
along  the  edges  of  his  crop  for  his  own  use.  At  that  time  it  was  valued  at  about  2 
cents  iier  pound,  average. 

"A  universal  practice  exists  in  Egypt  of  sowing  teale  (//.  cannabinut!)  around  the 
cotton  llelds  for  protection  from  cold,  sand  storms,  etc.  The  seeds  are  sown  the  same 
time  as  the  cottou,  not  as  a  thick  belt,  but  merely  about  9  inches  in  width.  The 
plant  grows  fairly  rapidly,  aiul  soon  reaches  a  good  height.  At  the  end  of  Septem- 
ber or  in  October  it  is  cut,  steeped  in  water,  and  the  liber  obtained  used  for  making 
ropes,  etc."'     (George  F.  Foaden.) 

Hibiscus  elatus.     Blue  or  Mountain  Mahoe.    Cuba  Bast. 

Native  of  West  Indies.  A  tree,  50  to  60  feet  Avith  roundish  leaves  and  large 
flowers  of  a  jjurpliah-saffron  color.     (See  fig.  62.) 

Bast  Fiber. — A  specimen  of  the  fiber  from  Demerara,  sent  to  the  Department  in 
1863,  was  described  as  very  strong  but  coarse  and  suitable  for  making  cordage,  coffee 
bags,  etc.  "Thefibersmake 
good  ropes.  The  lace-like 
inner  bark  was  at  one  time 
known  as  Cuba  bark  (Cuba 
bast),  from  its  being  used 
as  the  material  for  tying 
around  bundles  of  Havana 
cigars"  (Faivcvtt).  A  small 
quantity  of  fiber  known 
commercially  as  Cuba  bast 
or  Guana  comes  to  this 
country,  though  latterlj'  the 
supply  is  very  small  owing 
to  the  revolutionary  trou- 
bles in  Cuba.  Messrs.  Flint, 
Eddy  &,  Co.,  the  New  York 
importers,  have  furnished 
information  concerning  it  as 
follows : 

The  process  of  gathering 
entails  the  destruction  of 
the  tree,  which  is  cut  down, 
the  bark  peeled  off,  exposing 
the  fiber,  which  is  separated 
from  the  bark  and  spread 
out  in  the  sun  to  dvj,  and  subsequently  jiacked  in  bales  containing  150  pounds,  or 
thereabouts.  There  are  two  or  three  grades  of  it,  ranging  in  price  from  25  to  75 
cents  per  pound,  the  more  desirable  grades  being  the  lighter  and  softer  textures.  It 
is  used  extensively  in  this  country  and  Europe  for  making  women's  hats  and  milli- 
nery trimmings,  such  as  braids,  etc.  Its  porousness  makes  it  very  desirable  for  the 
above  purpose,  as  it  readily  absorbs  a  dye  without  impairing  its  texture.  We  under- 
stand that  it  is  also  used  to  some  extent  in  Europe  for  making  hammock  twine, 
narrow  strips  of  it  twisted  into  the  form  of  twine  having  considerable  tensile 
strength.  In  using  it  for  millinery  purposes  it  is  slit  into  narrow  strijis  and  then 
"woven,  twisted,  braided,  etc. 

^Sjiechncns. — Mns.  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag. 
12247— No.  9 13 


Fig.  62. — Leaf  and  blossom  of  Hibiscus  elatus. 


194  USEFUL    FIBER   PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

Hibiscus  esculentus.     Okra. 

Syn.     Abelmonchiis  esculcnfun. 

Common  iLNDNATi\'K  NAMES. —Okni,  gumbo  of  LouisiaiKi,  i/omho  (Fr.) ;  qui  mho  mho 
(Span.);  bamiyah  (Pers.);  hamiija  (Arab.);  hhindi  (Iliiul.);  hnndaka  (CcyL), 
and  many  others.  " 

The  plant  is  a  native  of  tlie  W»'St  Indies,  but  cultivation  has  introduced  it  to  all 
tropical  and  subtropical  countries.  It  nourishes  throughout  the  Southern  United 
States.  Avhere  it  is  grown  for  its  jtods,  which  form  a  useful  article  in  the  domestic 
economy.  It  ia  also  cultivatt  d  in  South  American  countries,  as  well  as  in  countries  of 
the  Old  AYorld,  the  French  estimating  it  highly  as  a  food  i)lant.  In  France  it  is 
known  as  fjomho,  and  it  is  the  "gumbo"  of  Louisiana,  which  is  employed  in  a  num- 
ber of  Creole  dishes,  the  sliced  pods  often  being  used  to  thicken  the  soup  known  as 
"gumbo"  or  "chicken  gundx)."  During  the  late  civil  war,  when  the  Southern  States 
were  cut  olf  from  communication  from  the  rest  of  the  world  by  a  rigidly  enforced 
blockade,  coffee  became  Aery  scarce  and  ditlicnlt  to  obtain.  During  this  time  many 
of  theiieople  of  the  Southern  States,  and  especially  the  poorer  classes,  utilized  the 
seed  of  the  okra  plant  by  either  mixing  with  coffee  or  using  it  alone.  They  found 
the  seed  thus  prepared  a  A-ery  fair  sustituto  for  coffee. 

A  few  years  ago  okra  attracted  considerable  attention  as  a  possible  lilxr  for  South- 
ern cultivation  to  re]dace  .iute  in  the  manufacture  of  "  Cotton  bagging ;  "  a  large  cor- 
respondence Avith  the  Deiiartment  resulted,  and  many  articles  on  the  subject  appeared 
in  the  newsiiapers  of  the  day.  As  is  frc(iucntly  the  case,  however,  the  Aalue  of  the 
plant  and  the  ease  of  its  cultivation  for  fil)cr  Avere  Acrj-  much  overrated,  and  subse- 
quent experiments  did  not  substantiate  the  claims  made  for  the  plant. 

Bast  Fihei:. — In  color  okra  liber  is  as  white  as  New  Zealand  tlax,  much  lighter 
than  jute  as  usually  prei)ared  for  export,  but  more  brittle  and  showing  less  strength. 
The  filaments  are  smooth  and  lustrous  and  ;ire  tolerably  regular.  "  The  fiber  is  long 
and  silky  and  generally  strong  and  pliant.  When  Avell  prepared,  as  in  portions  of 
India,  it  is  adapted  for  the  manufacture  of  rope,  tAvine,  sacking,  and  i)aper.  In  Ben- 
gal its  fiber  is  reputed  harsh  and  britth',  owing  doubtless  to  improper  trt'atment,  and 
it  is  but  little  manufactured  there.  In  1  )acca  and  Mymensing  it  is  used  to  adulterate 
jute.  It  resembles  hemp,  and  under  this  name  is  exported  to  the  amount  of  a  few 
thousand  hundredweight  yearly.  In  France  the  manufacture  of  paper  from  this 
fiber  is  the  subject  of  a  patent;  the  liber  receives  onlj^  mechanical  treatment  and 
affords  a  paper  called  banda,  said  to  be  equal  to  that  nuide  from  pure  rags."     (Spon. ) 

Dr.  Roxburgh  exi)erimented  with  okra  many  years  ago  in  India,  and  made  repeated 
tests  of  the  strength  of  the  fiber.  In  preparing  the  material  for  these  tests,  the  stems 
were  cut  Avhen  the  seed  was  ripe,  and  were  steepid  a  few  days  before  preparing. 
His  tests,  compared  Avith  hemp  and  jute,  are  thus  recorded:  The  okra  liber,  dry  (from 
India),  broke  with  a  strain  of  79  pounds;  wet,  95  pounds;  jute  {Corchoriis  olitoriiis), 
dry,  113  pounds;  Avet,  125  pounds ;  hemp  (Bengal),  dry,  1,58  pounds;  wet,  190 pounds. 
Hihiscits  cdunab'miis  in  the  same  test  gave,  dry,  115  pounds;  wet,  133  pounds.  Other 
species  of  Hibiscus  gav«  as  follows:  H.  sabdarlffa,  dry,  95  pounds;  wet,  117  pounds, 
H.  strictiis  (from  the  llollucas),  dry,  104  pounds;  wet,  115  pounds;  and,  H.  fnrcatita, 
dry  and  wet,  89  and  92  pounds,  respectively.  It  will  be  seen  by  these  tests  that  okra 
fiber  is  not  only  inferior  to  that  from  other  species  of  mallows,  but  is  inferior  to  jute, 
and  not  half  as  strong  as  hemp. 

CULTiAATioN. — The  eti'ort  to  bring  okra  into  cultiAation  iu  the  United  States  as  a 
fiber  plant  began  about  1890.  A  bagging  and  cordage  company  of  Fort  Worth,  Tex., 
became  interested  in  the  fiber,  and  issued  a  circular  entitled  A  Word  to  Farmers, 
which  contained  a  lengthy  account  of  the  production  of  the  fiber  and  its  uses.  It 
was  hoped  to  make  the  culture  of  the  fiber  and  its  manufacture  into  bagging  a  suc- 
cess "in  order  to  give  a  substitute  for  jute  that  would  enable  the  farmers  of  the  South 
to  avoid  paying  tribute  to  the  'jute  trust.'  "  The  company  named  in  the  circular 
oftered  to  sell  seed  to  the  farujers  at  cost  and  i)urchase  all  the  product  "  that  could 
be  carted  to  the  mill.''    The  Department  carried  on  a  lengthy  correspondence  with 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.     '  195 

Dr.  ]M.  Chambers,  who  was  named  iu  the  circuhir,  ami  was  much  iuterested  in  a 
machine  he  was  coustructiug,  which,  however,  was  never  perfected.  A  lar^e  area 
was  ])lanted  in  okra  near  Forth  Worth,  but  the  Department  was  not  able,  subse- 
(juently,  to  learn  how  n.uch  liber  was  secured,  if  any,  or  to  obtain  samjdes  of  either 
fiber  or  stalks.  Like  many  other  saeh  enterprises,  the  advantages  of  the  culture 
were  A'ery  muih  overstated,  and  the  ratio  of  cost  of  production  to  yield  and  value  of 
product  doubtlcs-i  appeared,  in  actual  practice,  inversely,  compared  with  the  golden 
promises  made  at  tlie  outset  of  the  experience. 

"  In  the  cultivation  of  this  jilant  the  seeds  are  thickly  sown,  on  any  rich  soil, 
about  the  beginning  of  Ai)ril  in  the  iSouth,  and  by  the  beginning  of  May  in  the 
North,  in  drills  G  inches  apart.  The  seeds  can  also  be  sown  broadcast,  about  20 
pounds  to  the  acre ;  but  here  much  care  has  to  be  taken  to  sow  as  uniformly  as  pos- 
sible. In  eighty  or  ninety  days  the  stalks  take  a  rosy  color,  and  without  irrigation 
they  will  then  have  attained  a  heiglit  of  from  4i^  to  5i  feet,  while  with  irrigation  dur- 
ing dry  weather  tliey  will  grow  to  a  length  of  from  6  to  8  feet  and  even  more.  The 
stalks  can  then  be  cut  with  a  mowing  machine,  having  a  dropper  attached,  2  or  3 
inches  from  the  ground."     (Fremcrey.) 

A  Florida  correspondent  states  that  "  the  plant  will  not  only  grow  from  the  seed 
almost  without  cultivation,  but  in  this  climate  it  will  rattoon  three  years,  the  last 
crop  nearly  equal  to  the  first,  it  being  very  rarely  injured  by  frost."  He  places  tlie 
yield  of  stalks  at  1.5  tons  per  acre,  though  Dr.  C.  1\  Pankniu,  of  Charleston,  S.  C, 
who  planted  a  small  area  in  okra  obtained  results  from  his  carefully  conducted 
experiments  as  follows:  A  half  acre  of  stalks  was  produced,  one-half  of  which, 
when  decorticated  by  his  process,  yielded  at  the  rate  of  180  pounds  of  fiber  to  tlie 
acre,  the  expense  being  in  the  neighborhood  of  $75.  The  fiber  has  been  used  experi- 
mentally in  the  manufacture  of  jiaper  in  Alabama. 

From  a  careful  consideration  of  the  snbject  in  all  its  details,  not  only  as  relates  to 
our  own  but  to  other  countries,  and  considering  the  weakness  of  the  fiber  compared 
with  jute,  I  conclude  that  the  cultivation  of  the  okra  plant  for  its  fiber  can  not  be 
made  a  paying  industi'y  in  the  United  States.  And  this  opinion  is  emjihasized  by 
the  fact  that  there  are  several  species  of  indigenous  fiber  i)]ants  which  could  be  as 
easily  grown  and  which  are  superior  to  jute  in  strength,  while  India  jute  itself  will 
do  well  in  many  of  the  Southern  States.  For  further  accounts  see  Report  No.  6, 
Fiberlnvestigations  series,  U.  S.  Dept;  Ag.  (1894);  Kew  Bull.,  Oct.,  1890;  Spon'sEnc, 
Div.  Ill;  Diet.  Ec.  Prod.  Ind.,  Vol.  IV;  U.  S.  Pat.  Kept.  (Agricult.),  1859. 

^Specimens. — Field  Col.  Mus. ;  Mus.  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag. 

Hibiscus  moscheutos.    The  Swamp  Eose  Mallow. 

This  is  one  of  the  coinmouest  of  the  mallows,  found  in  many  parts' of  the  temper- 
ate United  States,  according  to  Gray  "  inhabitating  brackish  marshes  along  the 
coast,  extending  up  rivers  far  beyond  the  influence  of  salt  water  (as  above  Ilarris- 
bnrg,  Pa.),  also  Onondaga  Lake,  New  York,  and  westward,  usually  within  the  influ- 
ence of  salt  springs."  The  jilant  grows  from  4  to  8  feet  iu  height  and  flowers  late  in 
summer.  It  is  also  found  in  India.  It  is  known  in  Trinidad  as  African  okra  or  (iiimho 
viisse.     (See  fig.  63.) 

Bast  Fiber. — Samples  of  the  fiber  in  the  museum  collections  are  evidejitly  hand 
prepared,  and  show  little  strength.  Those  from  experiments  made  in  New  .lersey  in 
1880  were  considered  "not  only  as  good  as  India  jute,  but  as  secondary  grades  of 
imported  hemps."  The  Aalue  of  the  fiber,  however,  was  very  much  overestimated. 
Experiments  with  plant  and  fiber  date  !)ack  many  years. 

"Recent  exiieriments  with  the  rose  mallow  at  Camden  and  Newark  incline  us 
strongly  to  believe  that  jute  of  equal  quality  may  be  obtained  from  it,  and  possibly 
under  conditions  more  advantageous  than  from  the  Abutilon  (J.  aricenyiw).  One 
very  important  advantage  the  rose  mallow  would  have  over  the  Abutilon,  in  respect 
to  the  economy  of  cultivation,  consists  in  its  being  a  perennial.  Like  ramie,  the 
plants  once  established,  the  aunual  cuttings  from  the  stands  would  be  a  perpetual 


196 


USEFUL  FIBER  PLANTS  OF  THE  WORLD, 


source  of  profit  to  the  cultivator,  iu  case  the  ([nality  and  cost  of  the,  liber  meet  our 
present  expectations."  (Second  Re]iort  of  tlie  Bureau  t)f  Statistics,  J^abor,  and 
Industries  of  New  Jersey,  1880.) 

Although  the  plant  is  usually  found,  iu  a  wild  state,  iu  marshes,  or  upon  the  mar- 
gin of  streams,  or  iu  low,  Avet  jjlaces,  exjjerimcuts  show  that  it  will  thrive  upon 
uplands  as  well.  'l"hirty-five  years  ago  rose  uuillow  roots  were  taken  from  the  i)lace 
of  their  natural  growth  and  planted  upon  ui>lan(l8  on  the  Delaware  River,  with  a 
view  to  utilization  of  the  fil)er,  and  ibr  many  years  they  held  their  own  as  tenaciously 
as  when  growing  iu  their  native  swamps;  and  they  may  be  growing  upon  these 
uplands  to-day,  for  all  that  is  known  to  the  contrary. 

*S2)ecime)i.—Mnii.  I'.  S.  Dept.  Ag. 


Fig.  03. -Leaves  aud  Ijloa.soms  of  IlibiKcits  mosclwtitos. 


Hibiscus  mutabilis.    The  Changeable  Hibiscus. 

A  native  of  China,  but  largely  cultivated  iu  India,  and  distributed  to  other  couu- 
tries.  It  grows  in  Trinidad  and  is  known  as  the  White  Mahoe.  Shalaixtra  is  one  of 
the  Indian  names  of  the  plant. 

FiBEK. — Hart  says:  "An  introduced  tree  (in  Trinidad)  giving  a  poor  bast  iiber." 
Watt  says :  "  The  bark  yields  a  strong  fiber  (in  India),  but  from  the  inner  layer  soft 
and  silky,  that  from  the  outer  layer  hard  and  of  a  lead  color."  Roxburgh  considered 
it  inferior  for  cordage  purposes. 

Hibiscus  sabdariffa.     Eozelle  Hemp. 

This  is  the  ".Jamaica  Indian  Sorrel,"  the  plant  which  Inrnishes  the  "  rozeUe"  (or 
oiselle)  hemp  of  the  Madras  territories.  In  India  it  is  a  small  bush,  cultivated  in 
many  portions  of  that  country,  its  stems  yielding  a  strong,  silky  fiber  by  retting  the 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  197 

twigs  when  iu  llower.  Its  llesliy  calyxes,  of  a  pleasant  acitl  taste,  are  inncli  employed 
for  niakini;-  tarts  as  well  as  jelly,  and  in  tlie  West  Indies  the  fruit  is  much  esteemed 
for  making  couling  drinks.  Another  culinary  use  of  the  plant  in  India  is  the  prepa- 
ration of  its  leaves  in- salads.  The  species  grows  in  southern  Florida,  •where  it  is 
lilanted  in  March  and  comes  to  maturity  in  Decemher. 

Bast  Fiber. — A  superb  sample  of  this  fiber  Avas  shown  iu  the  exhibit  of  British 
Guiana,  W.  C.  E.,  1893,  which  was  accompanied  l>y  the  stalks  some  10  feet  high,  :is 
straight  aud  clean  as  jute  stalks. 

The  liber  was  equal,  if  not  superior,  to  much  of  the  jute  which  comes  to  this 
country.  In  my  examination  for  award  it  was  given  the  following  rating:  Length, 
90  points;  strength,  75  points;  color,  80  points;  average,  81. fi.  'The  stem  yields  a 
lil)er  (in  .Jamaica)  which  is  line  and  silky.'"     (Fawcett.) 

E.  N.  Knapp  states  that  the  jilant  thrives  in  cultivation,  but  that  it  will  not  stand 
much  frost.  It  will  grow  on  quite  poor  laud,  thoiigh  it  does  best  on  good  land, 
where  it  reaches  a  height  of  8  to  10  feet.  It  can  be  produced  from  cuttings  as  well 
as  from  seed.  Even  in  Florida  it  is  much  esteemed  lor  its  fruit,  which  is  used  soon 
after  the  blossoms  fall.  It  is  said  to  make  an  excellent  jelly,  and  is  used  :is  a  sauce, 
much  as  the  cranberry  is  used  in  the  Northern  States. 

*^i)mHiens.— Field  Col.  Mus. ;  U.  S.  Nat.  jMus.  ;  Mus.  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag. 

Hibiscus  splendens.     Hollyhock  Tree. 

Fiber  from  this  species,  a  native  of  Queensland  and  New  South  AVales,  Avas  received 
from  Victoria  (Phil.  Int.  Exh.,  1876),  prepared  by  Dr.  Guilfoylc,  who  states  that  the 
species  is  a  splendi<l  tree,  growing  to  .a  height  of  20  feet  or  more.  "It  is  very  pubes- 
cent, bearing  Lirge  pink  flowers  resembling  hollyhocks  in  size  and  appearance.  The 
tiber  is  suitable  for  cordage,  lish  lines,  paper,  etc." 

Hibiscus  tiliaceus.     The  Ma.tagua. 

Syn.  I'nritiitm  tiliuceum. 

Nativk  AND  COMMON  NAME.-^.  ■^[aJa'Jna  {Venez.) ;  Ifuaniaija  (Ecuador);  Kmaja- 
gttn,  Damajagua,  and  Majagua (Peru) ;  Malwc-hord-la-nur (Trin. ) ;  Ifan ( Hawaii) ; 
7>oZ«  (Beng.) ;  7.V7//jm//;  (Bomb.) ;   Thinhan  (Burm.);   lleligobcl  {('ey\.). 

The  species  abounds  in  Central  and  South  America,  India,  tropical  Australia.,  and 
the  Pacific  Islands.     "  It  was  generally  cultivated  in  America  prior  to  1492." 

Bast  Fiuer. — The  samples  of  fiber  examined  are  not  as  good  as  the  best  jute, 
though,  according  to  Poxburgh's  experiments,  it  gains  in  strength  by  being  wet,  a 
point  iu  its  favor.  The  following  results  were  recorded:  "A  line  broke  when  white 
with  a  weight  of  41  jjounds,  after  being  tanned  with  62  pounds,  aud  after  having 
been  tarred  with  61  pounds.  A  similar  line  macerated  in  water  for  116  days  Ijroke 
when  white  with  40  pounds,  tanned  55  pounds,  and  tarred  70  pounds.  These  obser- 
vations are  of  great  interest,  tor,  of  the  other  fibers  exi)erimented  with  by  Roxburgh, 
the  majority  were  rotten  after  maceration,  and  no  other  fiber  showed  so  marked  an 
improvement  for  cordage  purposes  when  tarred.  English  hemp  and  Indian  grown 
hemp,  treated  iu  the  same  manner,  were  found  to  be  rotten,  and  sunn  hemp  bi-oke 
with  65  pounds,  and  jute  with  60  pounds." 

Malwr-hord-hi-mer  does  not  giow  inland  in  Trinidad,  but  is  found  on  the  seashore. 
The  fiber,  of  fair  quality,  is  obtained  in  lengtha*<)f  4  to  6  feet.  "There  are  no  large 
numbers  of  the  trees  existing  and  little  manufactur(>d.  The  bast  is  used  for  making 
ropes  when  the  native  has  no  money  to  buy  hemp  or  mauila.  Ropes  so  made  are 
good  and  strong,  but  there  is  little  i)i'Ospect  of  the  trees  being  produced  in  quantity. 
They  grow  15  to  20  feet  high  with  stems  8  to  20  inches  in  diameter." 

In  Peru,  where  it  is  known  as  Dar.ixjagna  or  Emajagua,  it  is  largely  used  by  the 
Indians  for  the  manufacture  of  ropes  and  cords.  In  Ecuador,  where  it  is  also 
known  as  Damajagua  and  Huamaga,  it  is  used  iu  lieu  of  cloth,  a  very  fine  sample 
of  a  sheet  of  fiber  a  foot  wide  by  2  feet  in  length,  and  as  thick  as  felt,  is  ju-eserved 


198 


USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


in  tho  Herb.  (.'oL  Univ.,  N.  Y.  lu  Yeuc/nc^la  it  is  used  for  a  kind  of  ordinmy  cordage, 
and  the  natives  of  the  Sandwicli  Ishmds  employ  it  for  rough  rope.  In  other 
countries  it  is  used  for  cordage,  fisliing  nets,  etc.  One  of  the  native  Indian  methods 
of  preparing  the  fiber,  Avhen  a  rope  is  wanted,  is  to  strip  the  bark  i'rom  a  branch, 
and  hohling  one  end  of  a  strip  firmly  with  the  toes  it  is  twisted  willi  lln'  hands. 
The  plant  and  fiber  in  India  is  fully  described  in  Die.  Ec.  Prod,  liid.,  NOl.  IN',  and 
by  George  AVatt  in  Selections  from  the  Kec.  Gov.  Ind.  Rev.  and  Ag.  Dijit.,  18S8. 
l)r.  Tlieo.  Wolf  says:  A  large  tree,  but  not  very  thick;  the  bark  is  cut  off  and  ]>ut 
in  water,  where;  it  rots  like  hemp   and  loses  its  outer  part,  tho  remainder  being  a 

fibrous  substance  which  is  very  strong 
and  soft,  and  variously  used. 

^Sj)echncns. — ifus.  U.  S.  r)ei)t.  Ag. 

Hicoria  spp.   IIkkotiy  Trees. 

Syn.  Gary  a. 
The  species  of  hickory  need  no  spe- 
cial description.  Tiicy  do  not  produce 
"fiber,"  though  the  subdivided  wood 
is  used  for  many  purposes  in  which 
the  true  fibers  are  employed.  These 
are  chiefiy  in  the  manufacture  of  bas- 
ketry and  brushes,  from  splints  or 
strips  of  the  wood. 

The  Chicago  Fiber  Company  in- 
forms mo  that  in  the  preparation  of 
hickory  splints  for  brush  niauufacture 
tho  material  used  is  second-growth 
timber.  The  log  is  cut  up  into  the 
lengths  lequircd  and  put  in  a  steam 
\;\\,  for  the  purpose  of  softening  and 
removing  the  bark,  after  which  it  is 
convej'ed  to  a  veneering  machine, 
made  especially  for  that  purpose; 
llien  it  is  conveyed  in  largo  sheets  to 
a  chopper,  where  it  is  cut  into  splints 
in  tho  width  reejuired;  the  splints  are 
then  set  on  a  rack  to  dry,  and  when 
dry  are  pressed  into  bales  from  100 
to  ."00  pounds  in  weight,  preparatory 
to  sliipment  to  the  brush  factory.  For 
]>rei)aration  of  sjjlints  i'or  basket  mak- 
ing, see  Fraxhiiis.  Mr.  Sudworth  in- 
forms me  that  a  bark  fiber  from  hickoiy  is  used  in  the  South. 

Hierochloe  odorata.     Vanilla  (Irass. 

Syn.  llierochloi:  horealis.     Now  known  ;;s  ."^(iraslaiKi  odorata. 

Kndogen.  Cramiiuai.  A  sweet-scentid  iicennial,  1  to  2  feet. 
Inhabits  moist  meadows  and  mountains  of  tlie  noitheastern  States,  extending  west- 
ward to  Oregon,  (irows  also  in  England  where  it  is  known  as  holy  or  sacred  grass, 
from  its  having  been  used  for  strewing  on  church  lloors.  Known  in  this  country  as 
vanilla  grass,  Seneca  grass,  sweet  grass,  etc.  "This  grass,  remarkable  for  its  fra- 
grance, has  long,  creei)ing  rhizomes,  from  which  spring  tho  flowering  culms  and 
numerous  long-leafed  sterile  or  flowerless  shoots;  woven  into  small  mats  and  boxes 
by  the  Indians.  Its  odor  resembles  that  of  a  sweet  vernal  grass,  but  is  more  pow- 
erful, especially  when  dry.  In  some  I.uropeaa  countries  it  is  believed  to  have  a 
tendency  to  induce  sleep,  ami  bunches  of  it  ai-e  hung  over  beds  for  this  purpose." 


Fig.  64. — Ilopi  IiMli:in  baskot  grass,  Ililaria  jatnaiii 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  199 

Structural  Fiber.— Dr.  Hav.ird  statrs  in  (iaidt-n  and  Forest,  1890.  p.  610.  that 
the  New  Engiaml  Indians,  especially  the  Penohseots,  make  an  extensive  nso  of  the 
holy  grass  {Hiirovhloi-  hornilis).  Its  long,  radical  leaves  become  strongly  involute 
in  drying,  forming  llexible  threads,  which  are  braided  into  tine  strips,  and  these  are 
woven  into  baskets  ami  other  jiretty  fancy  work.  He  has  also  found  braids  of  the 
holy  grass  in  a  ramp  of  the  Crow  Indians  on  the  Yellowstone,  but  did  not  learn  how 
they  were  used.  The  delicate  and  lasting  fragrance  of  the  dried  leaves  gives  them 
au  additional  and  perhajjs  not  their  least  merit. 

Higucion  (Peru).     See  Ficus  gigantea. 
Hik-gas  (IikL).     See  Odina  trodier. 
Hilaria  jamesii.     Black  Bunch  Grass. 

Eudogen.     (iramineiv.     A  stiff  grass,  12  to  18  inches. 

CoMMOX    AND    Indian    names.— Black   bunch   grass,    Guyetta,    Gietta;    Hopi 
(Moqui)  Indian,  "  Takachii :  from /flArt,  man,  ch7*m,  a  wiry  grass;  the  male  riihii"' 
(Fetckvs). 
A  rather  coarse  perennial,  with  creeping  rootstocks,  and  stems  12  to  18  inches  high. 
It  is  common  on  the  dry  mesas  of  IS'ew  Mexico  and  Arizona,  extending  eastward  into 
Texas  and  Indian  Territory.     Where  abundant  it  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  valu- 
able native  grasses  and  furnishes  excellent  pastnrage  at  all  times  when  not  covered 
with  snow,  and  is  frequently  cut  for  hay.     {F.  Lamson-Scribner.) 
Structural  Fiber. — The  grass  which  the  Hopi  Indians  assume  to  be  the  female 
.  ciihii  or  H.  jamesii,  is  used  by  the  women  in  making  the  coil  trays  described  under 
the  title   Yucca  glauca,  which  see.     These   coil  trays,  called  jyoota,  are  a  famous 
Tusayan  manufacture.     (See  tig.  64.) 

Himalayan  bamboo  (see  Arnndinaria  falcata). 
Hka"w-ma  of  Liotard  (Burm.).     Linum  usitaUssimnm. 
Hoa-ko-chu  (China).     See  Broussonetia. 
Hoheria  populnea.     Ribbonwood  of  Otago. 

Esogen      Mahace(v.     A  tree. 
A  New  Zealand  species,  resembling  the  Aspen.     "The  delicate  lace-like  bast  from 
its  young  branches,  being  strong  and  glossy,  might  be  used  for  other  purposes  than 
matting  and  string,''     (///•.  (litilfoi/le.) 

Hollyhock  fiber  (see  AltJuva  rosea). 
Hollyhock  tree.     Hibiscus  spJendens. 
Holostemma  rheedianum. 

Exogen.     Ascleiiiadaccd'.     Climber. 
A  native  East  Indian  species,  said  by  Royle  to  yield  a  fair  fiber  that  is  in  best  con- 
dition after  the  rains.     Watt  says,  "A  tiber  about  which  very  little  information  is 
available."     It  has  been  described  as  ]ture  and  silky  and  adapted  to  cordage  and 
paper  making. 

Honckenya  ficifolia.     Bolo-bolo. 

Exogen.      TiJiavviv. 

Specimens  of  fiber  of  this  species  were  sent  to  the  Royal  Kew  Gardens  in  1888  from 
Lagos,  west  coast  of  Africa;  known  as  Bolo-holo  in  the  Popo  vernacular,  and  Agbon- 
riii-Ihissa  in  Yarnba. 

We  consider  this  a  very  valuable  fiber  of  the  jute  class,  but  distinctly  superior 
to  the  latter  in  many  respects,  and  more  particularly  in  strength.  It  is  of  good 
length  and  well  cleaned.  If  this  fiber  is  capable  of  l)eing  produced  in  large  quanti- 
ties there  is  a  very  wide  Held  open  to  it  commercially.     Its  market  value  would  be 


200  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

regulated  by  that  of  jute,  but  in  our  opinion  it  would  always  command  a  higher 
price.  If  it  could  be  prepared  of  a  whiter  color  it  would  prove  still  more  accepta- 
ble, but  even  as  it  is  we  should  be  very  glad  to  see  large  cxuautities  placed  on  this 
market,  where  they  would  sell  readily.     {Ide  4'  Christie.) 

Honeysuckle  fiber  (see  Lonicera). 
Hoop  ash.     Fraxinus  nif/ra. 
Hop,  Common  (see  Humuhis  lupuJus). 
Hordeum  vulgare.     Barley. 

Syn.  JI.  sativum. 

Cultivated  barley,  which  is  represented  by  many  varieties,  appears  to  have  origi- 
nated from  Hordeum  sjtonta'iienm  of  southwestern  Asia. 

"Six-rowed  barley  has  been  in  cultivation  since  prehistoric  times  in  southern 
Europe ;  two-rowed  barley  is  now  largely  cultivated  in  England  and  Central  Europe, 
The  four-rowed  barleys  are  of  later  origin  than  the  others,  and  are  most  generally 
cultivated  in  nortliern  Europe  and  in  this  country.  Tlie  barley  crop  of  the  United 
States  for  1895  was  87,072,744  bushels,  of  which  amount  six  States  produced  over 
73,000,000  bushels,  California  leading  with  19,02.3,678  bushels.  Barley  is  the  most 
important  cereal  of  tlie  far  north,  some  of  the  varieties  being  cultivated  in  Norway 
to  latitude  70  .  It  is  employed  in  making  bread  also  in  nortliern  Asia  and  Japan. 
Barley  soup  is  an  article  of  diet  in  central  Europe.  From  naked  barley  (Hordeum 
dccorticatiivi)  a  mucilaginous  tea  is  ])repared,  used  in  medicine.  Tlie  grain  is  largely 
fed  to  horses,  botli  in  this  country  and  in  Europe,  1)ut  the  chief  use  is  for  brewing 
beer."    (F.  Lamsoji-Scribncr.) 

Structukai.  Fiber. — The  only  country  making  a  commercial  use  of  barley  straw 
for  i)laiting,  as  far  as  the  author  has  investigated  the  subject,  is  .lap.an.  where  the 
nianulaeture  of  straw  plait,  both  from  rice  and  barley,  is  a  gieat  industry,  'i'he  plait 
is  mostly  exported  to  this  country  and  to  France  and  England  for  hat  manufacture, 
.and  Jias  represented  in  a  single  year  a  value  of  .3.")0,450  yen,  or  $228,000. 

Two  forms  of  straw  are  employed  in  .Japan,  tliere  being  three  qualities  of  each, 
viz :  Naga.wara,  ])roduce  of  Omori-murn,  and  Kiriwarn,  produce  of  Yebara-gun,  Tokyo. 
A  large  collection  of  the  straw  plait  of  Japan  was  exhibited  at  the  W.  V.  E.,  1893, 
at  Chicago,  there  lieiug  over  20  forms  in  the  series. 

It  was  learned  that  some  farmers  bleach  barley  straw  cultivated  by  themselves,  in 
the  leisiirc  of  field  work,  and  sell  it  to  manufacturers  of  straw  plaits,  but  generally 
the  farmers  after  harvesting  and  thrashing  the  Ijarley  cut  the  upper  part  of  the  straw 
to  the  length  of  3  decimeters  and  sell  it  to  the  straw  plaiters.  Although  the  straw 
for  plaiting  iu  .Japan  is  not  so  good  as  that  of  Italy,  yet  it  is  better  in  quality  than 
that  of  China  and  other  countries.  In  Japan  several  articles,  especially  playthings, 
have  been  made  of  straw  from  olden  times;  but  recently,  on  ac<oMnt  of  straw  plait 
being  much  exported  to  foreign  countries,  especially  to  the  United  States  of  America, 
the  manufacturers  of  the  plaits  have  increased  year  by  year. 

'Specimens. — Mus.  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag. 

Horsetail  grass  (see  Biehelachne  crinita). 

Huachasso  (Peru).     See  TiUamJsia. 

Huamaga  (Ecuador).     Same  as  Damajagua.     See  Uihiscus  Uliaceus. 

Huampo  (Peru).     See  Gheirostemon. 

Huang-li-Pu  (China).     Fabric  from  Ananas  sativa. 

Huasima  (Braz,).     See  Guazuma. 

Huhiroa.     New  Zealand  flax.    Phormium, 

Huimba  (I'eru).     Sec  Bonihax. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE. 


201 


Huimbaquiro  ceibo  (rcru).     Sec  Bomhax  iribx. 
Huinari  blanca  (Mex.).     8ee  Sid<(  rliomhil'olia. 
Huirahuira  (Peru).     Cnlcitiion  (■(oieftcens. 
Huitoc  (Peru).     See  Genipa. 
Hujed  (Arab.).     See  Adansonia  <lif/itafa. 
Humulus  lupulus.     ( 'Ommon  Hop. 

Exogeii.      I'rlicacetr.     Perrnnial  twining  heii). 

This  spocies.  known  and  ciiltivatctl  tlie  world  over,  wlipro  there  nre  brewers  to  nse 
its  product,  may  also  be  enn- 
merated  nmonii  textile  plants. 

Fir.ER. — The  fiber  is  well 
suited  for  paper  making, 
especially  unbleached  paper 
and  cardboard.  In  Sweden  it 
Las  long  been  applied  to  tex- 
tile manufactures.  It  is  ex- 
tracted from  the  plant  by 
steeping  for  twenty-four  hours 
in  cold  water  containing  r< 
per  cent  of  sulphuric  acid,  or 
for  twenty  minutes  in  boiling 
■water  with  3  jier  cent  of  the 
acid.  Another  plan  is  to  boil 
for  three-quarters  of  iin  hour 
in  water  containing  so;i])  or 
soda,  then  to  wash,  and  boil 
in  very  dilute  acetic  acid.  The 
fiber  is  finally  washed,  dried, 
and  combed,  and  then  resem- 
bles flax.  (Spon.)  Its  use  for 
fiber  has  never  been  recorded 
in  this  country. 

Huruhuruhika.        IST  e  w 
Zenland  tlax.    See  Phor- 

miuni. 

Hymeneea    courbaril. 

West  Indian  Locust. 

A  species  of  legnniinous 
plant  found  in  the  West  In- 
dies and  South  America.  It  is  tho  jnliti  of  Brazil  and  Ihe  simiri  of  (hiiaua.  Useful 
timber  tree.  Furnishes  the  (!um  Animi.  "  It  ix  covered  witli  a  V(>ry  thick  but  light 
bark,  which  is  used  by  the  Indians  for  making  their  canoes."' 

Hymenodictyon  excelsum. 

A  Ceylon  species  closely  related  to  cinchona.  Is  mentioned  l>y  Tviotard  .'is  a  lilier- 
producing  plant  that  might  be  considered  i'or  paper  stock. 

Hyphaene  thebaica.     The  Doum  Palm. 

A  palm  of  I^gypt,  exceptional  from  its  normally  branching  trunk.  Savorgnan 
states  that  fiber  is  derived  from  this  palm  that  is  adapted  to  various  uses,  esjiecially 
for  brush  ami  broom  making.     (See  fig.  65.) 


Fifi.  C5. — The  T>oiim  pnlni,  JJmilxvnr  ilithaica. 


202         USEFUL  FIBER  PLANTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 

Ibira  (Span.)  =tree,  or  wood. 

Ibisco  (It.)  =IIibiseus. 

i-Boonda  (Xatal).     Ihiuibei/a  nataloifiis. 

Ife  hemp  (see  iSanserieriit  ri/Ilii(lric(t). 

Igi-ogura  (^^^  Afr..  Yorubalaiul).     Rap/iia  r!iiiOri(. 

Inibe  (liiaz.).     i:^ee  I^liilodendyoji  imhf. 

Imbul  (Ceyl.).     See  Eriodenilreu  ((nfrdclnosiim. 

Inaja  palm  (liraz.).     See  MaximUiana  regia. 

Indian  aloes.     Aloe  vera. 

Indian  Coral  tree.      Erythrina  indica. 

Indian  gut  (see  Caryoia  iircns). 

Indian  hemp  (IT.  S.).     Apocynnm  c(tnnahhinm.     (Tiul.)  See  Crofahiria. 

Indian  mallo-w  (IT.  S.).     Sec  AhutUon  avicenna: 

Indian  paper  birch.     lUinht  Ithojpaftra. 

Indian  sorrel,  of  Jamaica.     IlihiscKs  sdhdariffa. 

Indigo  plant  fiber  (sec  fudiffofcra). 

Indigofera  atropurpurea. 

A  genus  of  tlio  LeguminoHW.  to  whiih  bt'loii;L;s  i\\v  Indigo  plant,  /.  tinvtoria.  'I'ln^ 
species  above  named  is  a  small  Himalayan  shrub,  the  twigs  of  which  are  said  by 
Watt  to  be  used  for  b.asket  work  and  bark  bridges.  In  Kavirondo,  British  Cen- 
tral Africa,  a  species  of  this  genus,  with  the  common  name  TiKsiameua,  is  used  for 
basketry. 

Ingipipa  (Br.  Giiian).     See  Couratarl. 

Ipomcea  digitata.  Caffir  cotton. 

Syn.    liatdtas  pauiculaiti. 

The  Ipoviwax,  belonging  to  the  Co>iro?i'H/acefr,  are  widely  distributed  over  all  warm 
climates,  with  a  lew  species  extending  into  Korth  America,  extratrojjical  Africa,  and 
Australia.     The  inorning  gloiy  is  a  representati%'e  of  the  genus. 

Tliis  si)ecies  i ;  merely  referred  to  in  Bernard's  catalogue,  as  one  of  the  liber  jdants 
of  middle  Africa. 

Bernardin  includes  /.  ijerrardi  in  his  list  under  tlie  name  wihl  cotton  of  Natal. 

Irabirussu  (Baliia).     See  Conratitri. 
Iriartea  deltoidea.     Camona. 

A  rcrnvian  palm,  which  Dorc.a  states  yields  fiber  used  by  the  ludians. 

Iriartea  exorrhiza. 

A  Brazilian  palm,  useil  for  thatch  in  conneclion  with  (ieonoma  haciiliferii,  which 
see.  The  species  is  known  in  Brazil  as  I'axiiibn  or  J'ashiiiba,  while  /.  Hctificra  is  I'axiiiba- 
mh-a,  and  /.  rentricosa  is  r.arr'ujuda.     (See  Ortou,  and  iin  Thuru.) 

These  three  species  are  now  placed  in  as  many  genera,  the  title  species  being 
referred  to  Socratca;  T.  nefigera  is  Iriarfella,  and  rentricosa  remains  in  Iriiiriea.  (See 
fig3,67  .and68.) 


DESCRIPTIVP^    CATALOGUE. 


203 


Iris  niacrosiphon. 

A  genus  of  i)ereniiial  jihuits  liflouniiii;'  to  the  Iridace<r.     This  spct-ies  is  found  in 
California. 

Structural  Fiber. — Dr.  Ifavard  states  in  Garden  and  Forest,  1890,  p.  631,  that 
tho  leaves  of  this  species  are  mnch  used  in  northern  California  and  in  Oregon  to 
make  ropes,  fish  lines,  nets,  and  a  doth  hardly  distinguishable  from  coarse  canvas. 
The  leaves  are  1  to  2  feet  long  and  1  to  3  lines  wide,  each  with  two  strong  libers, 
forming  the  edges.  These  libers  are  dexter- 
ously separated  by  the  squaws  with  a  sharp 
zinc  thumb  piece,  then  neatly  and  evenly 
braided  into  cord  of  variable  size,  or  otherwise 
woven  into  nets,  cloth,  etc. 

I)  is  jjseiidacoriis  is  the  Yellow  Water  Iris,  a 
common  weed  of  England  and  Ireland.     The  tt/     M    II  ,  '(/^ 

leaves  are  said  by  Sjion  to  yield  GO  per  cent  of 
available  fiber  for  half  stufi,  which  makes  a 
fairly  good  paper. 

Ischnosiphon  spp. 

A  genus  of  Marantacew,  and  allied  to  plants 
in  the  (»kl  genus  Maranta,  which  see.  The  Kew 
]Mns.  collections  contain  examples  of  Carab 
baskets,  from  Dominica,  made  of  the  sytlit  stems 
of  /.  aroiima,  and  a  suriana  for  carrying  bur- 
dens on  the  back,  made  from  the  same  material 
in  r>ritish  Guiana.  Indian  baskets  are  also 
made  in  the  last-named  country  from  the  split 
stems  of  the  Mucro,  T.  pJurispicatus.  I.  ohliquits 
is  another  British  Guiana,  species  the  liber  of 
whieh  is  used  by  the  Indians.    See  MartDita. 

i-Tshanyela  (Xatal).     Afhrixia  phi/ll- 

CO  ides. 

Ischsemvini  angustifolium.    Bhabur 
Grass  of  India. 

Endogen.     Graminew.     A  perennial  grass. 

A  grass  closely  approaching  the  esparto  in 
habit,  and  possessing  the  qualities  requisite 
for  paper  manufacture  which  was  first  brought 
to  notice  by  Dr.  King,  of  the  Royal  Botanical 
Garden  of  Calcutta,  in  1877,  though  at  that  time  confounded  with  F.riophonun  coihoskiii. 
The  grass  is  used  in  paper  making  and  in  tlic  manufacture  of  strings,  ropes,  and 
mats.  (See  fig.  66.)  For  further  description,  cultivation,  etc..  see  Die.  Ec.  Prod. 
Ind..  Vol.  IV,  p.  526;  Bull.  Royal  Gardens.  Kew,  1S88,  p.  ir,7. 

*Sp('cime>is- — Bot.  Mus.  ITarv.  Univ. 

Isitebe  mat  (Natal).     See  KyUinya  elatior. 

Istle  (Mex.).     Commercial  Tampieo.     See  A(i((rc  lutcramntlia, 

Iturite  fiber  (see  Ischnosiphon  ohliqfiKs). 

Itzle,  the  same  as  Istle. 

Ivory  plant.     Phytelephas  macrocarpa. 

lAvaiwa  (Hawaii).     See  Adiantum. 


ilmr  p;rass,  /.sr//i 
tlMiinii. 


204 


USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


Ixtle  (Mex.).     See  Istle. 

See  also  Agaie  tuned.  On  tlie  authority  of  R.  do  Zayas  Euritiue  the  name  also 
applies  to  the  fiber  ol' J//aiT  ixtle  (=  rUjida)  and  has  been  applied  to  various  Aj^aves 
and  Bromelias  mentioned  in  economic  fiber  literature.     - 


•  mescal,  .  ir/tire  inslheiii. 


lyo  (A"()iiil)al:nul).     The  fiber  of  h'dph'm  rini/rra. 
Jacitara  (l>raz.).     See  Deswonoi.s. 
Jaggery  palm  (Oeyl.)-     See  Coryota  nrens. 
Jamaica  Indian  sorrel.     inbi.scK.s  ftahdariffa. 


^^ 


Jl!1fe«C.J^.l^'aK:=^ 


Fm.  07. — Tlio  Paxiuba,  Iriarlea 
exonhiza. 


Yui.   08. — XliB  Paxiiibauiini,    Iriarlea 
setigera. 


Japanese  matting  rush,  Bin<>o-i  (Ja]).).     See  Junciis  effusus. 

Jara  (Ura/..).     LcopoJdinia  pnlchra. 

Jara  assu  (IJraz.),     Leopoldinia  major. 

Jatoba  (Jjiaz.).     Hymencva  coiirh((rU. 

Jauary  (Braz.).     See  Astrocaryum  ja idtri. 

Javas  ami  Javasa  (Turk.).     Linnm  nuifatissimifm. 

Jayanti  and  Jiiyunti  \Beng.).     See  Seshforia  acnhaio. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  205 

Jeete,  Jettee,  Jiti,  and  Chiti  (lu<l.)-     Marsdenia  tcnacissiiiia. 

JeneqiTen.     Same  as  Henetiueii.     A(jarc  I'ujida. 

Jequitiba  (Bra/..).     ISoc  ('mirdiaii. 

Jev^'s  mallow,  -lute  (see  ('<>rcli<irii.s). 

Jipijapa  (Cent.  Am.).     See  Carliidoricd  ixdmata. 

Jocuiste  majahtia  (Mex,).    Sei' llroinclia piixju'm  and Karatd.sjdiimieri. 

Jolocin  (Mex.)..     See  Mcli<><<npns  <irbore.sirii,s. 

Jonote  (Mex.).     See  Held  oca  rjni.s  ((mericanKs. 


¥in.  69.—Ji<ba>a  spcctabiliti,  greenliouse  plaut. 

Jerusalem  thorn.     Fdylinsonia  acidcata. 
Jouze-hindie  (Arab.).     Cocos  nuci/era. 
Jubbulpore  hemp  (Iiid.).     See  Crotalaria  tcnuifolin, 
Jubcea  spectabilis.     The  Coc^uito  Palm. 

Central  Chile.  A  sweet  siriq)  is  formed  from  the  sap  of  this  palm,  kuown  as  Miel 
de  Fahiia.  The  nuts  are  emphjyeil  by  Chilian  confectioners  as  sweetmeats,  and  the 
natives  use  the  leaves  for  thatching.     (A.  iSmiih.)     (See  fig.  G9.) 

Jucca  (It.)  =  Yucca. 

Juncus  spp.    The  Eush  Gkoup. 

A  largi^  genus  of  Juncacew,  which  for  the  most  part  are  marsh  ])lant8,  and  wliicli 
are  found  in  many  countries.  Their  economic  use  is  in  the  manufacture  of  mats  or 
matting,  tliough  the  representatives  of  allied  genera  are  also  used  for  these  purposes. 


206 


3EFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


Tlio  rus„  mjiTtuig  of  Hpaiii  is  made  fiom  J.  inarUiinus,  and  t'.:c  sauie  species  is  em- 
ployed for  this  piiri)oso  in  Morocco.  Savorguuu  mentions  tlireo  species:  J.  anitiis, 
'Trowin*'  along  the  seaeoasts  of  Europe;  J.  canciricnsis,  used  iu  brnsh  and  broom 
manufacture;  and  ./.  vonfjlomeraius,  employed  fur  wicks  of  candles.  See  fig.  72. 
The  two  latter,  however,  are  now  regarded  as  identical  witli   ./.  cfiistis. 

Juncus  acutus.     Ua.skkt  JIitsh. 

A  basket  and  mat  rush  of  Italy.  Specimens  of  this  rush,  in  the  form  of  basket 
material,  has  been  received  by  the  De])artment  from  California,  used  in  the  lluscolo 
or  Bruscolo  )>askets  said  to  be  imported  from  Italy.  Tlie  Avord  T-uscolo  or  Bruscolo, 
meaus,  iu  Italian,  "a  slip  of  straw."     These  baskets  are  used  chielly  as  receptacles 


l''i(i.  70. — Juncus  acuttiii. 


Fio.  71.— The  Japanese  mat 
riisli,  Jvncus  rffnimis. 


for  crushed  olive  pulp,  wbicli  is  then  placed  under  the  i)res8.  The  word  Ctnnco 
means  not  only  the  species  of  Juncus,  but  is  applied  to  similar  sedge-like  forms  such 
as  the  Cijperacea-  generally.  Mats,  coverings  of  bottles,  baskets,  etc.,  are  enumerated 
amongthe  manufactures  from  these  sedges.  Lygeum  sparlum  nndJIfa,  or  Slipa  tenacis- 
Ktma,  are  also  used  in  basket  manufacture,  the  former  being  made  into  all  kinds  of 
baskets, which  are  exported  from  Italy  to  the  United  States,  and  many  other  countries. 

Juncus  eflfusus.     Bingo-i  Mat  Rush  of  Japan. 

Syn.  Jinicux  '■ommunis. 

Endo.nen.     Juucacew.     A  rush,  4  to  5  feet  when  under  cultivation.     (Seehg.  7L) 
This  species  is  distributed  over  a  large  part  of  the  globe,  being  the  candle  rush  of 
Europe,  and  a  very  commou  plant  of  wet  ground  in  the  United  States. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE. 


207 


Matting. — -/.  effusus  is  tbe  BuKjo-i  mat  rush  of  Japan,  employed  in  the  manufacture 
of  the  "  Tataml-omoir,''  or  the  hanilsomest  and  most  costly  mats  used  Tiy  Ihe  higLer 
classes,  while  Ci/penis  uxitans  is  employed  for  the  cheaper  grades  used  by  the  com- 
mon people.     The  pith  of  the  Binijo-i  rush  is  also  extensively  used  for  lamp  wicks. 

Cri.TiVATiox. — The  soil  best  suited  for  growing  Biiujo-i  is  of  a  clayey  character 
containing  a  small  ]>roportion  of  gravel  and  resting  ujion  a  rather  hard  subsoil.  The 
plants,  from  the  stubble  cut  in  the  i)revious  summer,  are  rooted  out  and  dipped  in  a 
dilute  urine  for  twenty-four  hours,  and  then  divided  into  bundles  of  about  ten  such 
shoots,  which  are  transplanted  in  well-prepared  and  manured  land,  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  rice  plants  are  transplanted  in  the  paddj' 
field.  The  distance  from  one  btiudle  of  the  plants 
transplanted  to  another  is  about  4  sun — that  is 
to  say.  a  bundle  of  ten  plants  occupies  4  sun 
square  of  ground.  The  transplanting  usually 
takes  place  in  the  month  of  October  or  Novem- 
ber, but  in  the  warmer  districts  it  may  be  as  late 
as  the  beginning  of  January.  After  the  trans- 
plantation the  land  is  constantly  watered  as  in 
rice  fields  and  ordures  and  well-rotted  farmyard 
manures  are  applied  several  times  at  due  inter- 
vals, especially  taking  care  to  keep  the  land  free 
from  weeds. 

In  the  middle  of  July  when  tine,  settled  weather 
is  anticipated  the  rushes  are  harvested  l)y  reaping 
them  with  a  sharp  sickle,  and  they  are  immedi- 
ately immersed  in  muddy  water  specially  prepared 
in  a  small  pond,  by  stirring  in  white  clay,  and 
then  dried  by  spreading  on  grass  land.  The  object 
of  dipping  the  rushes  into  turbid  water  is  to  facil- 
itate the  drying  by  the  etfect  of  the  adhering  clay, 
and  at  the  same  time  to  protect  ''Bingo-i"  from 
other  noxious  dusts.  The  most  important  point 
in  harvesting  Biugo-i  is  to  pay  great  attention  to 
the  condition  of  the  weather,  for  it  is  necessary 
in  obtaining  a  superior  (quality  to  dry  the  reaped 
rushes  as  quickly  as  possible,  not  exceeding  more 
than  two  days,  otherwise  they  deiireciate  greatly 
in  quality  and  value. 

Thelargestimporter  of  these  mats  is  the  United 
States,  England,  Austria,  and  Germany  following 
in  the  order  named.  The  qualities  made  are  named 
as  follows:  Kinkwanyen,  manufactured  at  Oka- 
yama.    First  (luality  Aya-musbiro,  second  qualitj^ 

Aya-mushiro,  Damasli  Aya-raushiro.  common  Aya-mufLhiro,  manufactured  at  Bittifi. 
First  quality  Somewake-mushiro,  common  Somewake-mushiro,  Damask  Hana- 
mushiro,  common  Hana-mushiro,  manufactured  at  Bingo.  Ordinary  Hana-mushiro 
(_best  quality)  manufactured  at  Chikugo. 

Juncus  pauciflorus.     The  Sheathed  Hush. 

Syn.  Jiiuciis  raf/iiiati<s. 

Quite  common  in  Victoria,  where  there  are  two  forms,  "One  variety  does  not 
exceed  2  feet,  while  the  other  often  attains  a  height  of  5  feet."     {Chrisfi/.) 

Structuual  Fiber. — Two  specimens  from  this  rush  were  received  from  the  Vic- 
torian collection,  and  are  among  the  many  libers  collected  and  prepared  by  Dr. 
Guilfoyle.  The  plant  is  a  native  of  Victoria  and  grows  abundantly.  It  is  regarded 
as  a  good  tiber  plant  as  well  as  an  excellent  paper  stock,  and  the  tiber  is  said  to 


Fig 


72. — Jviicus  comjloineratus. 


208  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

make  a  good  substitute  for  liuuiau  hair.  It  is  a  strong  growing  plant  and  is  found 
extensively  on  the  margins  of  lagoons  and  water  courses.  It  is  claimed  that  by 
boiling,  this  water  rush  yields  a  strong  fine  fiber.  The  museum  specimens  showed  no 
such  strength,  however,  ;is  a  twisted  strand  of  the  Victorian  fibers  was  as  easily 
broken  as  mauila  x>aper  twine. 

Dr.  Guilfoyle's  Australasian  liber  list  contains  several  other  species  of  this  genus: 
J.  communis,  the  coniniou  candlerush  (see  Jiiiicus  cffusiia) ;  J.  maritimiis,  tiie  sea  or 
coast  rush,  which,  under  Eknian's  jirocess,  is  said  to  yield  a  jtromising  fiT)er;  J. 
pallidits,  which  can  be  obtained  in  vast  <iuantities  in  the  Australian  colonies,  is  also 
named  as  a  valuable  paper  stock  with  ./.  prhmatocuri)ns. 

*  Specimens. — Mus.  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag. 

Jungli  (Belli;'.).     See  Af/arc  ((mcrUtma. 
Juniperus  occidentalis.     Juniper. 

Exogeu.     Conifcrw.     A  tree,  18  to  40  feet. 

Eastern  Washington  and  Oregon  to  California,  and  south,  along  the  high  lidges  of 
the  Sierra  Nevada,  between  7,000  and  10,000  feet  elevatiou,  to  the  San  Bernardino 
Mountains. 

Bast  Fibku. — Dr.  Fewkes  informs  the  Department  that  this  species  is  found  on 
the  mesas,  and  tluit  the  b.irk  is  used  by  the  llopi  Indians,  without  weaving,  for 
breeirh  clouts.  There  is  little  doubt  that  in  olden  times  garments  were  made  from 
this  liber  by  these  people  that  Avere  used  in  theii'  religious  c<'remonials. 

Dr.  Palmer  states  that  the  filuous  bark  of  ./.  c<ilif<>rni<tt  var.  iitalioisis,  a  tree  L'O  or 
25  feet  in  height,  is  made  into  saddles,  breech  clouts,  shirts,  and  sleeping  mats,  by 
the  Pai-Ute  Indians. 

Jupati  (Braz.).     See  i2oj>///V(  vinifera. 

Jussareira  (Braz.)     hhderpe  olcracca. 

Juta  (It.)     Jute. 

Jute  of  India.     See  GorvJionis  olltorius  •Andrnpsidari.s;  of  China. 

See  Ahutiloii  arivenmv. 

Kabong  (Malay).     See  Aren^/d  smcharifcra. 

Kadi  (Pers.).     See  Pandatms. 

Kadia  (see  Si  da  rctusa). 

Kadsura  japonica. 

This  species  belongs  to  a  genus  of  dicotyledonous  jjlants  of  the  Marjnoliacen', 
■which  are  climbing  mucilaginous  shrubs,  indigenous  to  tropical  Asia.  K.  japonica 
from  Japan  and  the  East  Iiulies  yields  a  liber,  derived  from  the  bark,  which  is  said 
by  Savorguan  to  be  held  in  high  esteem  for  its  tenacity  and  whiteness. 

Kajang,  mats  of  (see  J^ipa  frnticans). 

Kakarally  (Br.  Guiaii.).     Lecythu  ollaria. 

Kali  (Timor).     See  ]><nassus. 

Kalnan  {\ud.)=A(/ave. 

Kania-kher  (Beug.).     xindropogon  nardus. 

Kan  (Yuc,  Maya).     Agarc  rigida. 

Kanghi  (Hind.).     See  Ahutilon  indicum. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  209 

Kankhura  (Beng.).     See  Boehmeria  nioea. 
Kapa  (PiiL'if.  Is.).     See  Br oussonetia  papyri/era. 
Kapas  and  Kaipas  (Iiid.,  Java,  etc. )  =  Cotton.     See  Gossypium. 
Kapok  and  Kapok  floss  tree  (Java).    See  Erioilendron  anfractuosum. 
Karatas  pluniieri. 

Syu.  XUhdnrium  (Bromelia)  Jcaraias. 

Endogeii.     Bromeliacea'.     Aloe-like  leaf  cluster. 

Common  names. — Mexican  fiber,  silk  grass,  and  silk  grass  of  Honduras  (also  given 
to  other  species),  wild  pineapple. 
Common  throughout  tropical  America,  though  has  not  been  detected  in  Trinidad. 
Leaves  8  to  10  feet  long,  armed  with  recurved  teeth  or  spines.  Abundant  in  Jamaica, 
but  the  fiber  used  sparingly.  This  is  one  of  the  three  or  four  species  of  Bromelia, 
the  fiber  of  which  has  doubtless  been  confused  with  that  of  Bromelia  sylvestris  in 
collections  made  twenty-five  or  thirty  years  ago.  This  may  be  the  species  that  J. 
McLeod  Murphy  sent  to  this  Department  in  1869,  under  the  name  Bromelia  sylvestris 
(which  see),  as  his  economic  descriptions  in  j)art  may  apply  to  the  Karatas. 

Botanical  description.— A',  plnmieri  E.  Morren  in  Belg.  Hort.,  1872, 131;  Antoine 
Brom.  35,  t.  21-22  (M.D.).  Bromelia  luratas  Linn.  (Plum.  Amer.  Gen.,  t.  33);  Jacq. 
Amer.  Pict.,  t.  260,  fig.  24;  Hort.  Vind.  i,  t.  32-33,  III,  t.  74.     Nidulariiun  karatas 

Lemaire. Acaulescent.     Leaves  30  to  40  in  a  dense  rosette,  rigid,  spreading, 

ensiform,  4  to  8  feet  long,  li  to  2  inches  broad  low  down,  narrowed  gradually  to  the 
tip,  green  and  glabrous  on  the  face,  persistently  white-lepidote  and  finely  lineate  on 
the  back,  armed  with  large  pungent  hooked  marginal  prickles.  Flowers  about  50 
in  a  dense  sessile  central  capitulum,  at  first  3  to  4  incLes  finally  6  to  8  inches  diameter, 
surrounded  by  reduced  ensiform  inner  leaves  tinged  with  red ;  flower- bracts  scariose, 
oblanceolate,  2J  to  3  inches  long.  Ovary  cylindrical-trigonous,  li  inches  long, 
clothed,  like,  the  bracts  and  sepals,  with  loose  brown  tomentum;  sepals  linear,  per- 
manently erect,  an  inch  long.  Petals  reddish,  glabrous,  exserted  one-fourth  to  one- 
third  inch  beyond  the  tip  of  the  sepals,  united  in  a  tube  toward  the  base.  Fruit  3 
to  4  inches  long,  1  inch  diameter,  pale  yellow,  with  an  eatable  white  pulp,  tapering 
from  the  middle  to  both  ends.  Seeds  globose,  dull  brown,  vertically  compressed, 
one-sixth  inch  diameter. 

Structural  Fiber.— Dr.  Morris  says  of  this  species :  "A  well-known  and  valuable 
fiber  plant,  said  to  be  used  by  the  Indians  in  making  the  fiuest  liammocks  in  Central 
America,  Guiana,  and  Brazil."  In  the  young  leaves  the  fiber  is  said"  to  be  fine  and 
white,  though  growing  coarser  with  increasing  maturity. 

Locally  the  fiber  is  used  for  bowstrings,  nets,  fishing  lines,  ropes,  mats,  sacking, 
and  clothing.  After  being  passed  over  the  comb  or  hackles  of  a  flax  mill  it  has  been 
l^ronounced  greatly  superior  to  Russian  flax  and  equal  to  the  best  Belgian  for  appli- 
cation to  the  fiuest  textile  fabrics.  Fiber  which  was  useless  for  spinning  or  rope- 
making  would  probably  yield  very  superior  paper  stock.  The  plants  are  of  a  most 
prolific  nature,  growing  spontaneously  in  almost  all  Icinds  of  soil  and  climate.  Cul- 
tivation in  its  native  laud  is  therefore  extremely  simple,  and  it  is  surprising  that  the 
plant  has  not  recieved  more  attention  from  planters  in  America  and  our  colonies.  The 
Indians  cultivate  the  i)]ant  to  some  extent  in  Mexico,  1,221  gardens  being  recorded 
in  1830.  They  generally  select  forest  for  this  purpose,  removing  the  undergrowth  by 
cutting  and  burning.  The  roots  of  old  jilants  are  then  set  out  at  5  to  6  feet  ajjart, 
and  at  the  end  of  a  year  yield  leaves  fit  for  cutting.  The  leaves  vary  in  size  from 
6  to  8  feet  long  and  from  1^  to  4  inches  wide,  and  are  thin  in  proportion.  In  a  wild 
state  the  leaves  are  edged  with  thorns,  but  these  are  diminished  in  size  and  number 
by  cultivation.  The  fiber  contained  in  the  leaves  varies  in  rpiality,  according  to  age; 
in  young  leaves  the  fiber  is  fine  and  white;  with  increasing  age  it  becomes  longer  and 
12247— No.  9 U 


210         USEFUL  FIBER  PLANTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 

coarser.  The  native  implements  for  extracting  tlie  fiber  an^  exceedingly  rude — a  flat 
board  and  a  heavy  iion  knife.  Xo  special  machine  seems  to  have  been  invented  for 
the  iiveparation  of  this  fiber;  but  its  close  resemblance  to  the  fibers  of  the  agaves 
and  that  of  the  edible  pineapple  (see  Ananas  saliva)  wonld  indicate  the  applica- 
bility of  existing  leaf  fiber  machines.  See  Appendix  A.  After  the  first  crop  the  leaves 
grow  again,  but  the  fiber  subsequently  produced  is  short  and  of  bad  color.  (Spon.) 
K.  humiUs,  according  to  J.  H.  Hart,  grows  plentifully  in  Trinidad,  but  the  fiber  is 
not  employed. 

Karimgunji  Jute  (Intl.).     See  Corchorus. 

Karpasi  (Sausc).     Cotton.     Gossypium. 

Kat-kati  (Tnd.).     See  Grewia  viUosa. 

Kattan  (Arab.).     Linum  usitatissimum. 

Kattu-una  (Ceyl.).     See  Bamhusa. 

Kattu-kapet  (Afr.).     tSanserieria  lanuginosa. 

Kehal  (Ceyl.).     Musa  sapientuiti. 

Kel  and  Kela  (Bouib.).     Idem. 

Kelpo  (Java.).     Cocos  nucifera. 

Kenab  (Arab.).     See  Cannabis  sativa. 

Kendong  (Java).     Broussonctia  jiapyrij'era. 

Kenda  (lionib.).     See  Pandanus. 

Kenna  (lud.).     Crotalaria  retusa. 

Keratto  (Jam.).     See  Afjare  morristi. 

The  Kcralto  of  the  Leeward  Islands  is  Agarc  pohjaniha,  according  to  Dr.  Morris. 

Bleya  and  Ketki-keya  (Beug.).     Pandanus  odoratissimus. 

Khan  (lud.).     ^Saccliarnm  sponianeum. 

Khas(TTmd.)  and  Khasakhasa  (lioinb.).     ^eo  Androjwgon  st/uairosus. 

Khatmi,  Kanji,  Khubazi,  etc.,  (Ind.).     Malva  sylvcstris. 

In  reviewing  the  many  vernacular  names  of  this  plant,  in  India,  Dr.  Watt  says 
that  all  the  provincial  names  have  been  derived  from  the  Persian  Kangai  or  Kaugoi 
and  probably  refer  to  AhuiUon. 

Khirva  (Arab.),     llicimis. 

Khujar  (Pers.).     Luffa  (vgyptica. 

Kian  pak-kian. 

"Body  cloth  made  of  very  fine  shreds  of  bamboo,  passed  between  the  teeth,  and  Int- 
tcn  until  they  become  quite  soft  and  fit  for  weaving.  It  is  the  ouly  article  of  dress 
worn  by  the  inhabitants  of  Celebes."  (Oif.  Guide,  Kew  Mus.)  A  specimen  is  shown 
iu  the  Kew  Mus.  that  was  made  especially  for  the  Rajah. 

Kie-kie  (Xew  Zea.).     Freycinetia  banJcsii. 

Kiki  (Egypt).     Ricimis. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  211 

Killut  ( Ilina. j.     Saccli aru))!  fuscum. 
King-ma  (Gliiua).     Sida  ret  ma. 
Kinkivanyen  mats,  of  flapaii.     Ci/perus  unitans. 
Kinnab  (Arab.).     VdunablH  satirn. 
Kirindi-wel  (Oeyl.).     liourea  santaloidcs. 
Kitaibelia  vitifolia. 

A  uialvMceoiis  plant,  2>eciili;ir  to  Hungary  and  .sometimes  fonml  in  Eunlish  gardens. 

FiiiKii. — Derived  from  the  bark,  and  sometimes  called  Ilungariau  liemp.  ''From 
the  fiber  cloth  is  made  not  inferior  to  that  from  llax."  {Savorfjnan.)  I  cau  find  no 
other  reference  lo  the  nse  of  liber  from  this  jjlant. 

Kittool,  Kittul  (Ceyl.).     !See  Variiota  iirens. 

Kleinhovia  liospita. 

Exogen.     iStcrculiacea'.     A  tree. 

The  species  is  a  low  branching  tree,  a  native  of  the  Malay  Archipelago,  extending 
eastward  to  the  .Solomon  Isles.  Its  bruised  leaves  arc  said  to  exhale  a  perfume  simi- 
lar to  that  of  the  violet.     The  genus  consists  of  but  the  one  species. 

Fiber. — A  specimen  of  the  fiber  was  received  through  the  Smithsonian  Institution 
in  1869,  without  data.  It  is  similar  in  appearance  to  Ochroma,  and  of  so  slight 
tenacity  that  it  can  only  be  mentioned  as  fibrous  material. 

In  the  islands  of  the  Indian  Ocean  the  bark  is  used  for  making  cordage  and  fish- 
ing nets.  It  is  customary  for  the  i^'oplo  to  plant  this  si)ecics  near  their  rural  habi- 
tations for  use  in  their  agricultural  pursuits,  as  it  is  adapted  to  all  sorts  of  tying  and 
))inding  and  to  uses  re(iuiring  long,  pliant  twigs.  They  are  quite  superior  to  Salix 
for  tying.     (Manual  Iloepli.) 

Klooi  (Siaiii.).     See  liochmerla  nivea. 

Kniphofia  spi).     (See  Tritoin<t). 

Kodzu,  EZozo  (Ja}),).     TirouHsonetiapupiirlfera. 

Ko  hemp  (Jap.).     See  Pueraria. 

I^onapli  (Rus.).     Gannahis  sativa. 

Kongangu  (Aiistr.).     See  ripturns. 

Konje  (Zambesi),     t^ansevicria  f/tmueimis. 
The  fiber  is  known  as  h'onjc  hemp. 

Konkan  hemp  (Iiid.).     See  Crotdluria. 
Konope  (Pol.).     Cannabis  sativa. 
Koosa  (Iiul.).     Andro]jo(jon  squarrosus. 
Korako.     New  Zealand  llax.     See  rhonitiidn. 
Koug-kuombi  (Iiid.).     l>Lra  orellana. 
Ko"wl,  of  Liotard  (Ind.).     Careya  arhorea. 
Kozo  (Jap.).     BroHssonetia  jyapyrifera. 
Krowa  (Br.  Guiau.).     See  Crowia. 


212  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

Kuda  (lud.).     See  Hymenodictyon. 

Kuhila  (Intl.).     '^ee  JEschynomene. 

Kiikul-wel  (Ceyl.).     See  Calamus  radiatns. 

Kumbi,  Kumbya,  Kumbha,  etc.,  (lud.).     Coreya  arborea. 

Thu  iiaiiic  huiidii  is  hIsd  employed  for  Coehlonpermum  ffosnijpiuiii  in  several  prov- 
iuces  of  India,  in  connection  witli  others. 

Kurakkan  (lud.).     Eleiisinc  corncanit. 

Kurrijong  (X.  S.  W.).     Vommersonia  frasrri. 

Kuitam  tissul  (Arab.).     Gossypium. 

Kuta  (I'^iji  Is.).     IJleoclidrls  interstinctit. 

Kutan,  or  tukhme-katan  (I'ers.).     LIukih  ii.sitatis.siiiinm. 

Kydia  calycina. 

Exoijcn.     Mdlvaictr.     IJiisli  or  small  tree. 

Siibtroi>ical  India  and  Hiirnia.     The  Himalayas  up  to  2,000  feet  elevation. 

FiBEU. — "The  inner  hark  yields  a  hast  fiber,  used  lor  coarse  ropes,  etc.  In  point 
of  cidlulose,  and  in  power  of  resi.stance  to  hydrolysis,  Kydia  fiher  is  fairly  useful, 
heinji  ahont  twentieth  in  order  of  merit  of  a  list  of  some  300  fibers  met  with  in  India." 
( JVatt. )  Th<'  fiber,  known  as  Warang  bast,  resembles  the  b.ist  of  the  European  lime 
tree.  Tilid  europwa.  Savorjinan  states  that  the  bark,  used  in  strips,  can  be  ajjplied 
to  all  purposes  for  which  Tilia  anicricana  is  employed. 

Kyllinga  elatior. 

A  cyperaceous  plant  found  in  Natal.  There  are  nearly  .')0  species  in  the  <j;enn8, 
natives  of  Brazil,  South  Africa,  and  Australia. 

SriiucTrK.vL  FiBKH. — Like  all  plants  of  this  <;roup  the  culms  ar<^  employed  in  mat 
inakiuti.     The  mats  of  Natal,  from  this  species,  are  called  /sitebe. 

Lace.     See  Appendix  C. 

Lace  bark,  of  W.  lud.,  Lagetta  lintearia:  of  New  Zea.,  Plagi- 

a nth  IIS  hrfiiJiyius.     See  also  Daphnopsls. 

Lagetta  lintearia.     Lace  Bark  Tree. 

Exogen.      rhtjmiUvaceiv.     A  tree,  27>  to  30  feet. 

This  is  the  well-known  lace-bark  tree  of  Jamaica,  llie  bark  of  which  is  found  in 
all  liber  collections.  The  plant  is  said  to  be  cultivated  in  Great  Britain,  in  green- 
houses, though  only  as  a  curiosity. 

l-lBEi;. — Derived  from  the  inner  l)ark,  which  can  be  readily  detached  in  sheets  or 
layers,  like  the  layers  of  bark  from  the  pa]>er  birch.  It  is  snit-d  to  the  most  deli- 
cate textile  purposes.  'When  carefully  drawn  out  or  stretched  bj- the  hands  a 
l)entagonal  and  hexagonal  mesh  is  formed,  in  every  respect  like  lace,  and  many 
ornamental  things  are  made  from  it."     (Fawcctt.) 

"  It  is  reported  that  Charles  II  received  as  a  present  from  the  governor  of  Jamaica, 
a  cravat,  frill,  and  pair  of  rufiles,  made  of  this  material;  and  to  this  day  it  is  used 
for  bonnets,  collars,  and  other  articles  of  apparel,  specimens  of  which  may  be  seen 
at  the  Kew  Mus.,  etc.  The  uses  to  which  this  natural  lace  is  applied  are  not  always 
so  unobjectionable  as  those  .just  mentioned,  for  it  is  likewise  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  thongs  and  whips,  with  which,  in  former  times  at  least,  the  negroes  were  beaten 
by  their  cruel  taskmasters."'     (Dr.  Masters.) 

Savorguau  names  /-.  fmiifera,  now  Fiinifera  ittilis  as  a  South  American  species 
known  as  Mahot-pincet.  This  author  states  that  cordage  of  great  resistance  is  made 
from  the  bark. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  213 

Lagiinai'ia  patersonii.     Norfolk  Island  Cow-itch  Tree. 

Exogen.  Malvacecc.  Allied  to  Hibiscus. 
This  beautiful  shrubby  tree  is  iudigeuous  in  Queensland  and  Norfolk  Island,  aud 
is  closely  related  to  Hibiscus.  The  fiber  sample  was  prepared  by  Dr.  Guilfoyle 
(Victoria,  Phil.  Int.  Exh.,  1870),  who  accompanied  it  with  a  statement  that  it  was 
suitable  for  manufacturing  paper  of  a  superior  <|uality,  samples  of  Avhich  were  also 
presented,  and  for  ropes,  strong  cordage,  fine  matting,  and  basket  work.  The  liber 
is  iine,  strong,  and  glossy,  although  the  specimen  can  hardly  be  said  to  compare 
with  Sidd  rhombifolia  in  any  one  of  these  i)articulars. 

Lal-ambari  (Bomb.).     Hibiscus  sabdariffn. 

Lal-iniirga  (l>eiig.).     Celosia  crisfata. 

Laniba  (Borneo).     Cloth  fioin  CiireuUgo  JntifoUa 

Lana  de  Enea  (Veiiez.).     Typhamigustifolia. 

Lana  del  Tambor  (Veuez.).     See  Bomba.v  oimanensis. 

Langue  Boeuf  (Trin.).    Furcrwa  enhensis. 

Lantern  flo^ver  ( Austr.).     Fiber  of.     See  AhutUon  molle. 

Laportea  canadensis. 

This  species  of  l'riic<ice(v,  f(nind  in  many  localities  of  the  United  States,  iS  one  of 
the  stinging  nettles,  and  furnishes  a  fiber  of  average  quality-.  Specimens  of  the 
stalks  and  fiber  have  been  received  by  the  Department  from  time  to  time,  but  with 
better  native  fiber  species  it  only  deserves  a  passing  mention.  It  is  sometimes  called 
Indian  hemp,  as  it  has  doubtless  been  used  for  cordage  and  thread  by  the  North 
American  Indians,  but  this  is  a  misnomer.  True  Indian  hemp  is  an  Apoctjnum. 
This  species  is  mentioned  by  S^ion,  under  the  name  L.  pustulata,  who  also  says  it  is 
the  only  foreign  nettle  that  will  withstand  the  cold  of  the  European  winter. 

The  fiber  from  this  species,  before  the  introduction  of  cotton,  had  an  application 
more  extensive  than  at  present  in  Europe,  where  (particularly  in  Germany  and  in 
more  northern  countries)  they  manufactured  the  cloth  called  ortica  (German,  Xessel- 
tuch),  or  nettle  cloth  (Manual  Hoepli). 

^Specimens. — Field  Col.  Mus. ;  Mus.  IJ.  S.  Dept.  Ag. 

Laportea  crenulata.     Fever,  or  Devil's  Nettle. 

An  evergreen  arborescent  shrub  found  in  Australia  and  ludia.  "Contact  with  its 
powerful  stinging  hairs  causes  excessive  burning  pains,  which  last  for  several  days. 

Fiber. — This  jilant  yields  a  strong  useful  fiber,  nsed  by  the  hill  tribes  of  Assam 
for  cordage  and  in  the  manufacture  of  a  coarse  cloth.  Major  Hannay,  who  was  one 
of  the  first  to  bring  the  fiber  to  the  notice  of  Europeans,  stated  that  it  was  fine, 
white,  apparently  of  no  great  strength,  and  by  report  not  very  lasting.  Messrs.  Cross, 
I5evan,  and  King,  however,  in  their  recent  report  on  Indian  fibers,  appear  to  hold  a 
more  favorable  opinion,  stating  that  the  fiber  "is  good,  is  more  or  less  allied  to 
rhea,  and,  like  that  iiber,  is  very  strong." 

Laportea  gigas.    Gigantic  Nettle  Tree  of  Australia. 

Native  name. — (!oo-mao-mah . 
It  is  a  native  of  New  South  Wales,  and  is  very  abundant  on  the  McLeay  and  other 
northern  rivers.  In  Bennett's  "  Wanderings  of  a  Naturalist  in  Australia,''  the  author 
states  that  the  tree,  when  in  full  vigor,  rises  from  its  base  by  a  series  of  buttresses 
of  singularly  regular  outline,  gradually  tapering  without  a  branch,  to  the  height  of 
120  to  140  feet;  the  trunk  then  divides  into  a  regularly  formed,  wide-spreading  head, 
which  excites  admiration  bv  its  extraordinarv  size.     The  ordinarv  elevation  of  the 


214         USEFUL  FIBER  PLANTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 

tree  is  25  to  50  feet.  "The  poisouoiis  Huid  secreted  from  the  foliage  is  very  power- 
ful, particularly  iu  the  younger  leaves,  and  their  stiug  is  exceedingly  virulent,  pro- 
ducing great  suffering."  The  tree  is  also  indigenous  in  Queensland,  and  Dr.  Guilfoylc 
sends  S2»ecinieus  of  fiher  from  Victoria. 

Bast  Fiukr. — The  fiher  is  very  strong  and  fine,  and  suitable  fur  iishing  lines,  etc. 
In  New  South  Wales  its  fiht-r  is  made  into  cordag(>  of  considerahle  tenacity.  Tlie 
specimens  were  accompanied  hy  a  dilly  hag  made  by  an  Australian  aboriginal.  The 
wood  of  this  tree  is  soft  and  fi))rous,  and  might  be  pulped  up  for  fiber.  It  is  claimed 
that  the  best  and  strongest  t'lht^r  is  obtained  from  tlie  bark  of  the  roots.  The  filier 
is  e.asily  ]>repaTpd  and  can  be  obtaiiuid  in  (|nantity. 

Larch  (see  Lari.v  larlcina). 
Lasiandra  (see  Tihouchhut). 

Lardizabala  biternata. 

Kxogen.     Jlcrbcridaveo .     Twining  shrubs. 

Resemble  the  Mcnispermacew,  and  are  natives  of  the  coohn-  regions  of  South 
America  and  China.     The  species  named  is  from  Chile. 

W<)oi>v  FiiiKK. — "The  stems,  of  enormous  length,  in  Chih?  are  dried  and  used  as 
rojtes.     It  would  ])robably  yield  good,  tough  cordage  fiber."     (Spon.) 

Lai'ix  laricina.     Larch. 

Syn.  I.arl.r  nmerieana. 

Ivxogen.     Coni/(T(i'.     A  tree,  75  to  90  feet. 

(JoMMON  NAMF-s. — Tamarack,  hackmatack,  hacmac,  swam]>  J»in<^  larch,  red  larch, 
black  larch;  N.  Y.  Indian  name,  Ka-nch-tens. 
"Northern  Newfoundland,  Labrador,  Hudson  Bay,  northern  shores  of  the  (Ircat 
Bear  Lake  and  valley  of  the  McKenzio  River,  within  the  Arctic  Circle.  Through 
Northern  States  to  northern  Pennsylvania,  Indiana  and  Illinois,  and  central  Missouri. 
Found  (ui  moist  uplands  and  intervales,  or  southward  in  cold,  Avet  swamps."  (C.  >S. 
Sargent.)     Used  for  ship  timber,  railway  ties,  fence  posts,  telegraph  poles,  etc. 

Woody  Fiukii. — Dr.  Havard  states  that  the  roots  of  this  tree  when  sjilit  into  long 
threads  are  a  valuable  material  with  the  Chipiieways,  who  make  use  of  it  for  sewing 
the  seams  of  their  birch  canoes.  lie  also  informs  the  writer  that  the  roots  of  //.  occi- 
dentaliii,  a  I'acilic  States  8i)ecies,  are  employed  by  the  Indians  of  the  Yukon  River 
for  "l)asket  kettles,"  which  are  woven  very  neatly,  and  ornamented  with  hair  and 
with  dyed  ])orcupine  quills.     J..  f/ri(lithii  is  an  India  s])ecies. 

Lasiosiphon  eriocephalus. 

A  small  tree  of  Judia  belonging  to  the  TInjmehvacco',  known  as  Xaha,  the  b.ark  of 
which  has  been  recommended  as  a  paper-making  material.  L.  speciosus,  found  in  the 
Deccan  (Ind.),  and  which  furnishes  the  Remeta  bast,  is  the  same  as  L.  eriocephalus. 
"The  fibers  are  very  strong  and  almost  colorless."     (Spon.) 

Latania  aiirea. 

This  is  a  sm.ill  genus  of  African  palms  growing  to  a  height  of  20  or  .30  feet.  L.aiiira 
is  found  in  Mauritius,  where  the  leaves  have  been  employed  for  brushes  and  Itrooms. 

L.  commerftonn  is  iound  in  the  IMascareue  Islands,  where  the  leaves  are  employed 
in  the  manufacture  of  hats.  Its  fruit  is  about  the  size  of  an  ajiple  and  is  eaten  by 
the  negroes. 

Lavatera  arborea.     Tree  Mallow. 

Kxogen.      Malvacefv.     Large  slirub,  .3  to  4  feet. 
The  sjiecies  of  this  genus  for  the  most  part  are  found  in  Etirope,  western  Asia,  and 
Australia.     L.  arhorea  is  common  in  southwestern  Europe,  growing  on  the  rocks  on 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  215 

seacoast.  Is  grown  iu  Madeira,  and  found  in  a  wild  state  on  the  coasts  of  England 
and  Ireland.     Naturalized  around  Melbourne. 

Fiber. — "The  inner  bark  yields  a  strong  liber,  somewhat  coarse,  l>ut  capable  of 
manufacture  into  cords,  ropes,  and  mats"  (Spon).  "Has  lately  been  recommended 
for  culture  as  a  fiber  plant,  but  the  (juality  of  the  fiber  is  not  good."  (A.  SinUh.)  Dr. 
(Juilfoylo  states  that  the  fiber  is  highly  reconunended  for  paper  stock.  The  tree 
attains  n  height  of  8  to  10  feet  in  cultivation. 

/..  maritima,  the  sea  mallow,  another  south  European  species  similar  to  the  above, 
has  been  introduced  into  Australia.  Of  its  value  Thonuis  Christy  says :  "  Worthy  of 
cultivation  on  a  largo  scale  for  the  verj*  beautiful  and  excellent  (juality  of  its  fiber." 
"A  line  fiber  3  to  l  feet  long."  (//;•.  Giiilfoi/lc.)  Savorguan  states  that  it  is  sjionta- 
neous  in  the  environs  of  "  Nice,  in  western  Liguria,  in  Sardinia,"  etc.  Cortical  fiber, 
tenacious,  used  for  cordage.  Abundant,  and  the  fiber  does  not  deteriorate  in  salt 
water.     Adapted  to  coai'se  hemp  cables  and  marine  uses. 

X.  cretica  according  to  the  same  authority,  is  found  on  the  Tuscan  seacoast,  where 
it  is  known  as  Malra  di  Candia.  Its  coarse,  strong  fiber  has  also  been  used  for  mak- 
ing cordage.  L.  flara  is  found  in  Sicily  and  northern  Africa,  and  the  fiber  is  fully 
ecjual  to  the  preceding.  L.  pnvctatu  is  another  Eui'opean  species  from  which  Cazz- 
nola  extracted  excellent  liber  in  1875. 

Lavatera  plebeia.     Australian  Mallow. 

South  Australia,  "S'ictoria,  and  New  South  Wales.  "Successfully  tried  for  rope 
and  paper  making."  S.  L.  Swaab  states  that  the  species  was  brought  into  notice  by 
Mr.  Alex.  Talmer  of  south  Australia,  who  sent  a  qnantitj^  of  the  fiber  to  England, 
where  it  was  made  into  a  good  paper.  Appears  in  Spon  as  L.  jdeheja.  "Is  employed 
by  the  natives  (of  Australia)  for  baskets  and  fishing  lines." 

Another  Australian  species,  a  perennial  evergreen,  also  found  in  south  Europe,  is 
L.  trimcsfris,  known  as  the  velvet  mallow.  "It  su])plies  from  its  bark  a  substance 
not  unlike  white  horsehair  and  quite  as  useful  for  many  purposes."'  (Guilfoijle.) 
Christy  says  the  fiber  can  not  be  distinguished  from  that  of  L.  arhorea. 

Layu  (Peru)  =  Ficus. 
Leaf  fiber. 

The  structural  fibers  extracted  from  fleshy-leaved  ])lants  such  as  the  AgaA'es,  etc. 
The  same  as  "structural"  fiber,  in  the  classification.     See  page  25. 

Leather  plant  (New  Zea.).     Gelmisia  corlacca. 
Leather-wood  (U.  S.).     Dirca  paliistris. 
Lechuguilla  (Mex.).     vSee  Agave  Jirteraeantha. 
Lecythis  ollaria.     Monkey  Pot. 

Endogen.     Mijrtacecv.     Large  tree. 

This  genus  is  chiefly  confined  to  Venezuela,  British  Guiana,  and  Brazil,  and 
embraces  30  or  40  species.  Mauj^  of  them  are  large  trees  growing  to  a  height  of  80 
feet  or  more.  They  bear  a  hard,  woody  fruit,  some  of  the  seeds  or  nuts  being  edible, 
such  as  the  Sapucaia  nuts,  from  Para.  The  inner  bark  of  the  species  is  composed  of 
paper-like  layers,  which  can  be  removed  in  strips. 

FirjER. — Specimens  of  the  bast  of  L.  ollaria  were  received  from  the  exhibit  of 
British  Guiana  (W.  C.  E.,  1893),  known  as  Ealarally.  As  many  as  100  layers  of  this 
bast  have  been  taken  from  a  piece  of  the  bark  of  this  species,  the  operation  being- 
hastened  by  beating.  The  ribbons  of  bast  are  used  by  the  Indians  of  Brazil  for 
cigarette  wrappers,  and  in  British  Guiana,  for  cordage  and  basket  work.  An 
unnamed  species,  from  the  British  Guiana  exhibit,  labeled  "JJlna,''  is  used  for  the 
same  ]iurposes.  Another  specimen  of  this  fiber,  named  JVadadiiri,  and  used  for 
paper  making  was  submitted  to  Dr.  Ernst,  who  states  in  his  manuscript  notes  that 


216 


USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF   THE    WORLD. 


it  is  ohtaiued  from  /..  (jramllfiora,  and  likewise  from  L.  crassinoda.  In  Yeneznela, 
L.  coriacca  is  known  as  Marima  colorada.  The  fiber  of  a  Brazilian  species  witliont 
name  is  said  by  Saldauha  da  Gama  to  be  nsed  for  calking  vessels.  The  bark  of 
another  species  growing  abundantly  throngliont  the  Amazon  region,  and  known  as 
2Ialii-malii,  yields  an  oaknm  that  is  excellent  for  calking  canoes,  according  to  a  cata- 
logue of  Woods  of  Amazon,  W.  C.  E.,  189B. 

Leopoldinia  piassaba.     Monkey  Bass. 

Endogeu.     I'ahtuv.     I'alm,  15  to  40  feet. 
This  tree  grows  abundantly  near  the  AVhito  River,  which  flows  into  the  Barra  de 

Rio  Negro,  as  well  as  on  some  of 
the  tributaries  of  the  Orinoco; 
it  is  also  found  in  the  Amazon 
basin;  but  the  bulk  of  its  fiber 
comes  from  the  Barra  de  Rio 
Negro.  Its  habitat  is  low, 
sandy  flats,  where  water  may 
stand  a  little  in  rainy  weather; 
but  it  avoids  swamps.  (Spon.) 
One  of  the  Brazilian  palms 
•which  snpjdies  the  commercial 
Piassaha,  or  Piacaha  fiber  now 
exported  in  such  quantities. 
Two  species  furnish  the  com- 
mercial prodnct,  L.  lyiassaha, 
the  Para  fiber,  and  Attaleafmn- 
fera,  the  Bahia  fiber,  though  in 
recent  years  another  form  has 
been  sent  from  the  west  coast  of 
Africa,  known  as  West  African 
Bass,  Jlaplila  rinifera.  See  also 
BorassH8  flaheUifrr  and  Dictyo- 
spervia  fihrosum. 

STnucTURAi.  Fiber. — Leopol- 
dinia inassaha.  "The  dilate 
margins  of  the  ])etiole8,  where 
they  clasp  the  stem,  are  produced  into  long  ribbon-like  strips,  which  afterwards 
split  into  fine,  somewhat  round  fibers,  about  5  to  G  feet  long,  entirely  concealing 
the  stem.  These  fibers,  cleaned  and  combed  by  hand,  form  the  piassaha  of  com- 
merce."    {Dr.  Morris.) 

The  commercial  fiber  is  nsed  for  Virush  making,  and  for  brooms,  though  the  natives 
employ  it  for  cables,  ropes,  baskets,  hats,  as  a  tie  material,  and  for  other  purposes. 
*  Specimens  of  heavy  cordage  from  this  species  were  received  from  the  Brazilian 
exhibit  of  the  Phil.  Int.  Exh.,  1876,  which  are  now  in  the  mu-seum  of  the  Depart- 
ment. The  Para  "Bass"  is  said  to  absorb  more  water  than  the  Bahia.  The  Para 
fiber  now  forms  less  than  5  per  cent  of  the  piassaba  of  commerce,  and  commands  a 
high  price, 

Lepidosperma  flexuosum.     The  Slender  Sword  Eush. 

E  ndogen .     Cyperacea-. 

Found  in  Victoria  and  Tasmania.  Several  species  of  this  genus  have  been  enu- 
merated as  fiber-producing  plants,  fiber  having  been  prepared  from  them. 

STiacTUUAL  FiiJEU. — A  specimen  of  the  fiber  of  L.  Jlcxuosum  was  secured  from  the 
Victorian  collection,  Phil.  Int.  Exh.,  1870.  It  is  exceedingly  brittle,  and  can  only 
be  nsed  in  mats  or  similar  articles,  where  it  can  be  coarsely  plaited.  According  to 
Dr.  Guilfoylc,  the  material  can  be  had  in  large  quantities,  and  is  extensively  used 
by  the  aborigines  for  baskets,  mats,  etc.     He  states  that  "under  proper  treatment 


Fig.  73.— Tlio  T.^ra  Pi.issabapaliii,  Leopoldinia  jnasiaha. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  "  217 

it  yields  a  fiber  of  good  quality,"  though  the  present  saiujile  would  hardly  verify  the 
statement.  It  might,  however,  he  used  in  paper  making,  though  at  l)cst  it  is  a  poor 
"fiber." 

At  the  same  time  an  example  of  X.  elaiius  was  received,  both  specimens  having 
been  prepared  by  Dr.  Guill'oyle.  This  is  a  much  better  aud  stronger  fiber  than 
the  preceding,  and  would  prove  xiseful  for  making  many  kinds  of  coarse  cordage. 
The  leaves  and  llower  stalks  of  the  plant  grow  to  a  height  of  9  feet  in  Victoria,  aud 
the  plant  is  found  in  great  abundance,  and  can  be  had  iu  large  quantities.  It  fur- 
nishes a  pulp  for  paper  making,  aud  is  used  in  various  ways  by  the  natives.  This 
specimen  is  also  from  the  Victorian  collection  (Phil.  Int.  Exh.,  1876),  and  was  pre- 
pared by  Dr.  Guilfoyle.  Christy  says  it  is  an  excellent  paper  plant.  It  yields  its 
fiber  by  boiling. 

Lepidosperma  gladiatum.     Coast  Sword  Rush. 

Native  of  Australia  aud  Tasmauia,  where  it  grows  in  great  abundance  on  the  coast 
lands.  Will  supply  an  annual  crop,  the  roots  throwing  out  fresh  shoots.  Spon  says 
it  is  used  by  the  natives  for  baskets  and  fishing  lines,  and  suggests  that  its  only 
industrial  use  will  probably  be  paper  making,  "for  which  purpose  it  is  considered 
equal  to  esparto." 

L.  sqiiamati(7n  is  another  Australian  species,  used  for  mats  by  the  natives  of  the 
Wimmera,  southeast  Australia.  L.  filiforme  is  also  employed  by  these  people  for 
basket  manufacture. 

Lepironia  niucronata. 

A  cyperaceous  plant  found  in  Madagascar,  tropical  Asia,  and  Polynesia.  One  of 
the  mat  fibers  of  China.  Such  mats  are  made  by  the  Chinese  boatmen  to  cover  their 
cargoes;  also  used  for  bags.  A  mat  of  line  workmanship,  probably  from  this  species, 
is  preserved  in  the  Kew  Mus.,  made  in  Korea ;  obtained  from  the  King's  palace. 

*S2)eci'mens. — U.  8.  Nat.  Mus.;  Bot.  Mus.  Harv.  I'niv. 

Leptadenia  spartum. 

Exogen.     Asclepiadacca'.     A  glabrous  shrub. 

Paujab  and  Sind,  in  India.  Arabia,  Egypt,  and  Senegarabia.  An  imported  fodder 
plant,  also  used  for  thatching.  The  species,  are  "erect  leafiess  shrubs  or  twiners 
furnished  with  leaves,  all  having  a  grayish  tonientum  covering  stems  and  leaves." 
(Treas.  Botany.) 

Bast  Fiber. — Mentioned  iu  Die.  Ec.  Prod.  lud..  Vol.  IV,  as  "much  used  in  Sind  for 
making  ropes  to  bring  up  water  from  wells,  as  water  does  not  rot  it." 

Liabum  ignarium. 

An  exogeuous  plant,  a  native  of  Quito,  which  Spon  states  has  aftbrded  a  good 
fiber.     (Spon  Enc,  pt.  3.  p.  919.) 

Liane  a  cordes  (Fr.).     Blgnonia  riminalis. 

Ligustrum  vulgare.     Privet. 

Of  this  genus  there  are  about  twenty  representatives,  in  Euro]te,  northern  India, 
China,  and  Japan.     Belongs  to  the  Oleacew. 

"A  .shrub  used  for  hedges.  In  ilarch  it  produces  white,  fragrant  blossoms,  similar 
to  those  of  tlie  olive.  The  leaves  produce  a  yellow  or  green  tint  for  dyeing.  The 
branches  are  used  for  constructing  cages  for  birds  where  fowlers  set  their  traps." 

Lime  tree    of  Europe.      Tilia  europwa-,   of  South  America, 

Apeiha  tibourbou. 

Lin  (Fr.).     Flax.     See  Liniim. 

Linden  (see  Tilia). 


218 


USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


Lino  (Si)au.)=Flax. 

Lino  d'India  (It.). 

nnni  majiis. 


Asclepias  fnitico.sa. 


(lei  Muri.     Antirrhi- 


Linuni  spp. 

Exogeus.     JAnaccd'.     Siii;ill  licrhs  or  sbrul)s. 

The  representiiitives  of  llic  gcnns  JAnum  nre  distributed  over  hotli  licinisplusres, 

thougli  tlioy  nro  cliicily  natives  of  tcniperato  cruiiates.     While    /..  iisitalls.simum  is 

coiisideroil  the  cultivated  liber  species,  l)otanists  recognize  upward  of  100  species  in 

tliis  genus,  D(^  Caudolle  dcscribingni  in  the  first  volume  of  his  Prodromus.     In  nianj' 

instances  the  distinctions  between  these 
species  are  so  slight  that  tlie  agriculturist  or 
tlie  industrialist  would  scarcely  recognize 
thcni,  and  th(>v  are  therelbre  of  botanical 
rather  than  economic  interest.  Eeuouard, 
in  Etudes  snr  le  Culture  du,  Lin.,  refers  to  the 
fact  that  our  gardens  sometimes  contain  three 
varieties  Avhich  dilVer  greatly:  Two  species 
with  yellow  llowers,  the  Liiium  tri/jjiuum 
(Ucinwardlia  trh/yna),  originating  in  India; 
and  the  lAnnm  cahqxinulatiim,  which  conies 
from  southern  Europe  and  from  Egypt;  also 
one  willi  red  (lowers,  the  L'uium  firaudijloruvi. 
And  jdants  Avith  Avhite  llowers  and  llesh- 
colored  llowers  are  sometimes  seen.  There 
are  still  others  known  by  name  only,  as  the 
species  is  very  rare ;  such  is  the  Livum  cathar- 
ticnm  tlio  leaves  of  which  have  a  Ijitter  taste 
anci  are  sometimes  employed  as  a  purgative. 
But  amongall  these  varieties  the  blue  flower- 
ing, still  designated  by  the  name  of  Lin  com- 
miiu,  or  the  L.  usitalinsimum  of  the  naturalists, 
is  the  only  industrial  si)ecies  and  the  only 
one  really  cultivat<'d.  In  the  grouping  of 
species  two  general  divisions  have  been  made : 
Those  having  yellow  llowers  and  those  "with 
flowers  blue,  flesh-color,  pink  or  white, 
though  a  special  distinction  is  made  in  regard 
to  Ij.  ealharticum,  "  with  flowers  always  white 
an<l  leaves  o]>posite."  L.  usitatissimum  comes 
into  the  group  having  blue,  white,  pink,  or 
flesh-colored  flowers,  though  as  far  as  the  cul- 
tivation of  these  plants  for  conmiereial  fiber 
is  concerned  it  is  the  only  species  th  a  t  interests 
us.  Regarding  the  distinctions  which  separate  the  sitecies  of  Linum,  Renonard  says: 
But  these  are  so  subtle  that  they  evidently  have  no  bearing  upon  the  industiial  uses  of 
the  flax  and  are  of  no  value  to  agriculture.  Often  the  most  oxj)erienced  operator  and 
the  countryman  most  familiar  with  this  culture  have  had  much  trouble  to  classify 
the  jjlants  as  above  indicated.  Moreover  all  these  species  may  be  obtained  from  one 
sort  of  seed.  What  has  given  rise  to  these  distinctions  is  that  when  the  flax  does 
not  appear  all  in  one  growth  of  stem,  slender  at  the  top  and  without  branches,  bear- 
ing one  flower,  it  may  remain  short  and  ramify  its  stalk  into  a  number  of  branches 
having  several  flowers  and  considcralde  seed.  It  is  under  this  aspect  that  we  see  the 
plant  designated  as  "  tetard''  (pollard  or  branched ;>  also  called  lutit  Un  (small  or  low 


Fig.  74. — Tho  ancient  flax  plant,  Linum 
aiiffustifnlium. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  219 

flax)  in  contrast  with  the  ordinary  flax  called  grand  I'm  (tall  flax).  Besides  the  above 
facts  we  may  say  that  there  have  never  been  seen  either  entire  lields  or  eveu  parts  of 
fields  growing  only  the  tetard,  or  the  low  flax.  We  therefore  hold  it  to  he  inoppor- 
tune to  make  such  classification  of  the  common  flax  into  industrial  species. 

Some  Avriters  recognize  L.  crvpUans  as  a  cultivated  si)ecies,  this  form  growing  less 
tall  than  iisUalissimnm,  with  much  thicker  stems  which  have  the  tendency  of  branch- 
ing, and  more  abundant  flowei"s,  and  therefore  producing  more  seed.  In  a  re])ort 
from  Consul  T.  E.  Ileenan  at  Odessa,  it  is  stated  that  "  Lhiiini  iisHatinsimicm,  L. 
rulgare,  and  L.  crepitans,  .are  being  cultivated  in  Russia  in  several  varieties  of  both 
kinds,  but  the  difference  in  these  varieties  is  so  slight  and  tlu^y  so  easily  blend  that 
even  those  initiated  in  the  tr.ade  of  the  article  often  fail  to  perceive  it.'' 

Several  other  forms  of  flax  are  mentioned  by  industrial  authorities,  but  they  are 
of  little  importance.  L.  perenne,  which  is  known  conmionly  as  perennial  flax,  has 
been  the  subject  of  experiment,  but  beyond  the  fact  that  it  is  ni<>ntioned  doubtfully 
as  an  oil  plant  in  India,  it  does  not  concern  us. 

The  most  ancient  cultivated  species  of  flax  is  thouglit  to  bo  L.  angn.iti/ol'nim,  a 
form  found  growing  wild  from  the  Canary  Isles  to  Palestine  and  the  Caucasus. 
This  is  the  species  said  to  have  been  grown  by  the  Swiss  Lake  dwellers  and  the 
ancient  inhabitants  of  the  north  of  Italy,  while  L.  KsilatiKsinniin  was  the  ancient 
flax  of  Mesopotamia,  Assyria,  and  Egypt. 

"These  two  principal  forms  or  conditions  of  flax  exist  in  cultivation  and  ha^'e 
probably  been  wild  in  their  modern  areas  for  the  last  five  thousand  years  at  least. 
It  is  not  possible  to  guess  at  their  previous  condition.  Their  transitions  and  vari- 
eties are  so  numerous  that  they  may  be  considered  as  one  species  comprising  two  or 
three  hereditarj^  varieties,  which  are  each  again  divided  into  subvarieties."'  (Die. 
Ec.  Prod.  Ind.,  Vol.  V.) 

In  the  United  States  two  species  of  flax  are  used  for  fiber,  /..  hwisii  by  the  North 
American  Indians,  and  L.  iisifatissimnm,  in  commercial  cultivation  largely  for  seed, 
but  to  some  extent  for  fiber.  There  are  other  American  species  of  Lhuim,  but  they 
have  no  economic  interest. 

Linum  angustifolium.     Flax  of  the  Stone  Age. 

The  species  of  flax  cultivated  in  Europe  in  prehistoric  ages.  See  this  species  in 
the  chaiiter  on  ancient  fibers,  page  11.  See  .also  second  ami  third  par.agraphs  above 
and  first  paragraph  under  L.  iisltatissimuvi.     (See  fig.  74.) 

Linum  lewisii.     Rocky  Mountain  Flax. 

This  species  has  a  wide  range  in  aubarid  westeni  North  America,  extending  from 
southern  Alaska  and  the  plains  of  western  British  America  southwaixl  through  the 
Rocky  Moinitains  and  Sierra  Nevada  region  to  the  higher  ]ilateaus  of  southern  Cali- 
fornia, western  Texas,  and  northern  Mexico.  The  plant  dift'crs  from  the  common 
cultiv.ated  flax,  in  producing  usually  two  or  three  stems  from  its  stout  perennial  root 
and  in  having  a  capsule  two  or  three  times  as  long  as  the  calyx.  The  Indians  of  the 
Oregon  plains  make  it  into  a  remarkaldy  strong  twisted  cord,  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  fish  nets,  in  the  binding  of  grass  mats  and  basket  frames,  and  for  other  pur- 
jioses.     ( F.  r.  Covillc.) 

Linum  usitatissimum.     Cultivated  Flax, 

Common  axd  native  names.— Flax  (Eng.) ;  Lin  (Fr.) ;  Flachs  (Ger.) ;  Zmo(Span. 

audit.);  Tisi  (Hind,  and  Beng.);  Jlsi  (Hind.);  Javas,  Javasa,  Ziijgar  (Turk.); 

Kaitan  (Arab.);  Zaghu  and  zaghir,  and  Kutan  or  tukhnir-lcalin  (Pers. ),  etc. 

Supposed  to  have  originated  in  Eastern  countries.     "Thus  the  first  Egyptian 

white  race  may  have  imported  the  cultivation  of  flax,  or  their  immediate  successors 

may  have  received  it  from  Asia  before  the  epoch  of  the  Phoenician  colonies  in  Greece, 

and  before  direct  communication  was  established  between  Greece  and  Egj-pt  under 

the  fourteenth  dynasty.     A  very  early  introduction  of  the  plant  into  Egypt  from 


220 


USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


Asia  does  not  i)revent  us  from  adniitting  that  it  was  at  diff'ereut  times  taken  from  the 
East  to  the  West  at  a  later  epoch  than  that  of  the  first  Egj'ptian  dynasties.  Thus 
the  western  Aryans  and  the  Phujniciaiis  may  have  introduced  into  Europe  a  flax 
more  advantageous  thau  L.  anfiustifolium  during  the  period  from  2,500  to  1,200  years 
before  our  era.''     {J)r  CandoUe.)     (See  fig.  75.) 

Tlie  flax  jdant  is  now  Avidcly  distributed  tliroughout  the  world.  It  is  cultivated 
in  temperate  North  America,  to  a  slight  extent  in  portions  of  South  America,  espe- 
cially in  Argentina  (though  more  for  seed  thau  for  fiber).  It  is  produced  commer- 
cially to  a  greater  or  less  extent  in  Great  Britain,  Ireland,  especially  Sweden,  Den- 
mark, Holland,  Belgium,  France,  Russia,  Germany,  Austria,  Sjiain,  and  Portugal.  It 
has  been  introduced  into  Algeria  and  into  Natal,  and  its  cultivation  was  old  in  Egj'pt 

at  the  dawn  of  the  Christian  era.  In  India 
large  tracts  are  under  cultivation,  though 
more  for  tlie  seed  crops  than  for  fiber.  Japan 
has  introduced  its  cultivation  commercially, 
and  it  lias  been  experimented  with  iu  the 
Australian  colonies,  where  there  is  a  wide 
range  of  soil  anil  climate  suited  to  its  growth. 

HiSTOHY  or  ILAX    CTLTtRE   IN    AmEKICA. — 

A  perusal  of  the  historical  records  in  this  coun- 
try shows  that  llax  culture  was  one  of  the  ear- 
liest of  colonial  industries,  and  wc  may  be  sure 
tliat  the  Puritan  maidens,  like  the  Greek  maids 
of  old,  were  familiar  with  the  si)inuing  and 
weaving  of  flax,  if  not  with  the  sjiindle  and 
distafl' of  Homeric  times,  for  until  compara- 
tively recent  years  the  culture  and  manufac- 
ture of  flax  in  America  have  l)een  household 
industries.  ^ 

The  American  colonists  brought  with  them 
the  art  of  raising  flax  and  of  preparing  and 
spinning  it  by  hand,  and  even  fifty  years  ago 
the  custom  prevailed  among  farmers  of  grow- 
ing flax  and  having  it  retted,  scutched,  hac- 
kled, and  spun  by  members  of  their  household. 
In  thi'  history  of  Lynn,  Mass.,  it  is  stated  that 
about  the  year  IfiSO  "they  raised  considerable 
quantities  of  flax,  which  was  retted  in  one  of 
the  ponds,  thence  called  Flax  Pond."  As  early 
as  ir)()2  the  State  of  Virginia  enacted  that  each 
poll  district  should  raise  annually  and  man- 
ufacture G  pounds  of  linen  thre.ad.  All  the 
records  of  New  England  likewise  give  evidence 
of  an  earnest  desire  to  promote  the  cultivation 
of  flax  and  its  manufacture.  "About  1718  a  number  of  colonists  arrived  from  Lon- 
donderry, bringing  with  them  manufacture  of  linen  and  other  implements  tised  in 
Ireland.  The  matter  was  earnestly  taken  Tip  by  the  ]5ostoiiians,  and  a  vote  passed 
to  establish  a  sjiinning  school  on  the  waste  laud  in  front  of  Cai)tain  Southack's, 
about  where  Scollay's  buildings  were."  About  1721,  at  Newport,  R.  I.,  "hemp  or 
flax  used  to  be  received  in  payment  of  interest,  the  former  at  8(1.  and  the  latter  at 
lOd.  per  p<mnd."  Pennsylvania  ofi'ered  premiums  for  several  grades  of  linen  thread 
in  1753,  and  the  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Arts,  Agriculture,  and  Economy,  of  New 
York,  after  adopting  resolutions  to  arrest  the  importation  of  British  goods,  offered 
premiums  for  linen  thread.  The  early  records  of  Rhode  Island  develop  further  inter- 
esting facts  concerning  an  association  of  jdantation  maidens  al)oiit  1706.  The  order 
was  known  .as  the  Daughters  of  Libertv.     Its  origin  is  ascribed  to  Dr.  Brown,  at 


Fig.  75. — Coinniou   tiax,   LinxDii  iisi  atissi- 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  221 

whose  house  eighteen  young  ladies  belouging  to  prominent  families  in  Providence 
assenilded  by  invitation  and  employed  the  time  from  sunrise  to  evening  in  spin- 
ning."   (d.  B.  Turner,  jr.) 

The  statistical  records  show  that  sixty-odd  years  ago  almost  thrce-(£narters  of  a 
million  pounds  of  llax  fiber  were  produced  in  the  United  States,  and  flax  was  sent 
to  market  from  Connecticut  sixty  years  ago  that  was  strong,  clean,  and  as  good  as 
any  raised  in  the  United  States  at  the  present  time.  Very  strong  and  flexibh'  (hix 
also  came  from  northern  New  York  and  Vermont,  but  it  was  not  clean.  Tlie  poorest 
flax  of  those  days  came  from  New  .Jersey,  though  tlio  State  has  been  capable  of 
growing  Ihix  ecjual  to  Archangel.  In  past  time  "North  River"  flax  was  regularly 
sent  to  market  from  New  York  State,  it  being  very  strong,  but  poorly  cleaned. 

The  figures  for  flax  liber  in  the  year  1869  sliow  a  product  of  over  13,000  tons,  but 
this  docs  not  mean  fine  line,  but  the  coarser  fiber,  or  tow,  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
bagging,  for  this  period  marks  the  higliest  point  reached  in  fiber  product  before  the 
collapse  of  the  industry  a  year  or  two  later,  owing  to  the  free  introduction  of  jute 
for  cotton-bagging  manufacture. 

At  the  present  time  flax  is  largely  grown  in  the  United  States  for  seed,  the  straw, 
of  inferior  quality,  when  used  at  all,  going  to  the  tow  luills  or  the  paper  mills,  and 
worth  from  $1  to  $8  a  ton,  the  average  in  different  sections  being  not  more  than  $2.50 
to  $4.  In  the  older  States  the  area  under  present  cultivation  is  very  small  and 
steadily  decreasing;  in  the  newer  States,  or  States  where  agriculture  is  being  pushed 
steadily  westward  from  year  to  year,  the  area  under  cultivation  al)out  holds  its  own 
one  season  with  another.  Cultivation  for  fiber  is  beginning  to  attract  attention,  and 
good  commercial  fiber  has  been  produced  in  verj'  small  (juantities  in  Michigan,  Wis- 
consin, and  Minnesota.  The  Puget  Sound  region  of  the  State  of  Washington  has 
shown  its  ability  to  produce  a  fine  grade  of  straw,  the  iiber  from  which,  according 
to  recent  experiments  made  by  the  Barbour  Cojupany,  in  Lisburu,  Ireland,  is  worth 
$350  per  ton. 

Bast  kibeh. — -Flax  may  bo  considered  the  most  useful  and  valuable  of  all  com- 
mercial fibers  next  to  cotton,  having,  however,  a  wider  range  of  uses.  The  fiber 
occurs  in  the  greatest  variety  in  regard  to  strength,  length  of  filaments,  color,  and 
adajitabiiity  to  manufacture,  and,  compared  with  cotton  in  fabrics,  is  the  fiber  of 
luxury,  while  the  latter  is  the  textile  of  the  masses. 

The  dimensions  of  the  fibers  are  as  follows:  Length,  0.157  to  2.598  inches;  mean, 
about  1  inch;  diameter,  0.0006  to  0.00148  inch;  mean,  about  0.001  inch.  The  chief 
characteristics  of  flax  are  its  length,  fineness,  solidity,  and  suppleness.  Its  remark- 
able tenacity  is  duo  to  the  fibrous  texture  and  the  thickness  of  the  walls;  its  sup- 
pleness permits  it  to  be  bent  sharply;  its  length  is  invaluable  in  spinning,  and  the 
nature  of  the  surface  prevents  the  fibers  from  slipping  on  each  other  Mul  contributes 
to  the  durability  of  fabrics  made  with  them.  Flax  may  be  made  lustrous,  like  silk, 
by  wasliing  in  warm  water,  slightly  acidulated  with  sulphuric  acid,  then  passing 
through  bichromate  of  ])otash  vapor  and  gentlj^  washing  in  cold  water.  Samples  of 
flax  exposed  for  two  hours  to  steam  at  2  atmospheres,  boiled  in  water  for  three  hours, 
and  again  steamed  for  four  hours,  lost  only  3.5  per  cent  of  their  weight,  while  nianila 
hemp  lost  6.07;  hemp,  6.18  to  8.44;  jute,  21.39.  The  conversion  of  flax  into  textile 
fabrics  is  a  large  and  distinct  industry.     (Spon's  Enc.) 

Uses  of  flax. — Some  of  the  uses  of  flax  fiber  are  the  manufacture  of  lace  (see 
Appendix  C),  fine  linens,  cloth  for  shirtings,  sheetings,  etc.;  handkerchiefs,  dress 
goods  and  suitings,  canvas  and  duck;  for  embroidery,  flosses,  ''flax  thread,"  and 
twine,  from  shoemakers'  and  harness  thread  to  salmon  twine  and  the  rougher  pack- 
age twines;  for  warp  in  carpets,  for  the  bo<ly  of  oilcloth,  and  even  for  rope  and 
cordage.  The  rougher  fiber  is  applicable  to  the  manufacture  of  binding  twine  and 
paper,  though  little  used  for  either  purpose. 

During  the  first  years  of  the  war  of  the  rebellion  an  attempt  was  made  to  replace 
cotton  in  the  manufacture  of  fabrics  by  a  textile  substance  produced  chemic- 
ally from  flax,  hemp,  and  other  textiles  that  would  give  a  fiber  claimed  by  those 


222  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

interested  in  the  processes  to  be  "strongiT  than  cottoi}  or  wool  and  <-aj)able  of  taking 
better  color  than  either;  and  be  spnn  and  woven  on  the  existing  cotton  and  woolen 
luachiucry  at  a  cost  below  cotton  or  wool  at  any  time,  there  being  less  waste."  In 
the  Report  of  the  Flax  and  Hemp  Connnission  of  1<S()3  is  an  acconnt  of  the  Aarious 
processes  under  experiment  for  this  purpose,  the  substances  produced  being  vari- 
ously known  as  "librllin,"'  "llax  cotton,"  "clansenized  Jlax"  (and  hemp),  and 
"erolin"  or  "llax  wool."'  The  series  of  specimens  that  were  received  during  this 
inquiry  was  deposited  in  the  Mus.  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag.,  and  formed  a  valuable  and  iuter- 
estin"-  historical  exhibit.  They  are  not  in  the  present  museum,  however,  nor  is  the 
writer  aware  of  their  existence. 

Vaijietiks  ok  imported  ix.\x. — The  following  statement  concerning  the  kinds 
of  llax  imported  into  the  United  States,  with  the  names  and  marks  of  grades,  has 
been  prepared  for  the  Department  by  Robert  ]».  Storer  &  Co.,  Boston,  Massachusetts: 
Eitssia:  Russian  llax  is  known  as  Slaiietz  (or  dew  retted)  and  Motchenet:;  {water 
retted),  and  the  shipments  from  St.  Petersburg  arc  largely  of  Sirelz,  or  ungraded 
kinds  of  the  several  districts.  The  llax  from  these  tlistricts  is  known  under  the 
name  of  Bejedsk,  Krasnoholm,  Twer,  Kashin,  (Jospodsky,  Nerechta,  Wologda,  Jara- 
slav,  Graesowet/,  Kostronni — all  Slanetz.  The  MoUheiielz  sorts  are  Pochoclion,  Oug- 
litz,  Rjctf,  Jaropol,  and  Stepurin.  From  Archangel  are  shipped  Slanelz  sorts,  known 
as  First  Crown,  Second  Crown,  Third  Crown,  Fourth  Crown,  First  Zabrack,  and 
Second  Zabrack.  From  KMga  shi]>meuts  are  entirely  of  Afolclitiietz  .sorts  and  the 
marks  are  graded  from  the  standard  mark  K,  the  others  being  IIK,  Pi\,  HPK.  SPK, 
HSPK,  ZK,  GZK,  and  HZK. 

Holland:  Dutch  liax  is  graded  by  the  marks  ^,  ",  VI,  All,  VILI,  IX. 
Belgium:  Flemish  llax  (or  blue  llax)  includes  Bruges,  Thissalt,  Client,  I>okereu, 
St.  Nicolas,  and  is  graded  ,\',  \.^  ",  VI,  VII,  VIII,  IX.  Courtrai  liax  is  graded 
J  "  -'-  "  '  "  VI.  Femes  and  Bergues  liax  is  graded  A,  B,  C,  1).  Walloon 
flax  is  graded  II,  III,  IV.  Zealand  llax  is  graded  IX,  VIII,  VII,  VI.  Fricshmd  (lax 
is  graded  D,  E,  Ex,  F,  Fx,  Fxx,  G,  Gx,  Gxx,  CJxxx. 

France:  French  llax  is  known  by  the  districts  of  Waviin,  Klines,  Douai,  Ilaze- 
brouck,  Picardy,  and  Harnes. 

Inland:  Irish  llax  comes  as  scutched  and  mill  sentched,  and  is  known  by  the 
names  of  the  counties  where  raised. 

Canada:  Has  no  standard  of  marks  or  (iimlities. 

Growth  for  .seed  .\xd  eiiser. — It  has  been  said  that  good  seed  and  salable  liber 
can  not  be  produced  from  the  same  plant,  and  this  statement  has  been  reiterated 
again  and  again.  Experience  in  other  countries,  as  well  as  our  own.  disproves  th<' 
assertion. 

The  huest  liax  produced  in  Europe  is  grown  in  Belgium,  where  the  seed  is  not  only 
saved,  but  is  used  in  some  cases  to  produce  the  next  year's  cro])  of  llax.  The  usual 
practice  in  that  country  is  to  import  the  seed  annually,  though  in  some  localities  a 
diflercnt  custom  i)revails,  as  in  the  Brabant.  Imported  seed  (Dutch  or  Russian)  is 
planted  the  first  year  and  the  seed  produced  by  this  crop  is  planted  the  second  year, 
giving,  it  is  claimed,  a  better  ([uality  of  llax  than  the  first  year;  but  for  the  next, 
or  third,  year's  sowing  new  seed  is  again  secured. 

"About  the  fiber  being  coarse  if  the  seed  is  saved,  this  will  not  be  the  case  if  the 
liax  straAV  is  pulled  before  being  too  ripe  and  hard.  In  France  and  Belgium  our 
spinners  get  the  finest  fiber,  and  the  growers  there  save  the  seed."  {John  Orr  If'al- 
lace. ) 

"The  crop  nuist  be  grown  with  a  view  toward  getting  from  the  land  the  highest 
yield  of  straw  that  will  produce  the  finest  quality  of  fiber.  The  seed,  which  ought 
to  be  a  large  factor  in  profit,  should  be  saved,  etc."     (Irish  Textile  Journal.) 

Irish  experiments  have  shown  that  an  acre  of  land  has  produced  5  tons  9  huudred- 
wei"ht  of  green  flax  one  week  pulled,  and  22  bushels  prime  seed.     Experts  in  the 


DESCRIPTIV.E    CATALOGUE.  223 

country  Jiave  shown  that  good  lilier  and  good  seed  can  he  secured  from  the  same 
croj),  as  set  forth  in  the  Reports  of  the  Fiber  Investigation  Series  of  this  Department. 

Soil  inlection. — Too  much  care  can  not  he  exercised  in  the  selection  of  the  soil  for 
this  crop.  The  Belguxn  flax  farmer  selects  a  deep  and  well-cultivated  soil  that  is 
not  too  heavy,  experience  proving  that  in  a  dry,  calcareous  soil  the  stalk  remains 
short,  while  in  a  heavy,  clayey  soil  it  gives  greater  length,  though  at  the  expense  of 
fine  fiher.  In  Ireland  any  clean  land  in  good  state  of  fertility  that  will  produce  a 
good  cro])  of  wheat,  oats,  or  barley  is  considered  suitable  for  flax.  On  heavy  soils 
the  lUitch  seed  is  thought  to  give  best  results,  while  Kiga-  seed  is  sown  upon  the 
light  or  medium  soils.  Recent  experiments  in  our  own  country  have  demonstrated 
that  the  heavier  soils,  when  well  drained  and  of  proper  fertility,  are  preferable  to 
the  lighter  soils,  known  as  sandy  loams.  In  general  terms,  a  moist,  deep,  strong 
loam  upon  upland  will  give  liest  results.  Barley  lauds  in  the  Middle  States  and  new 
prairie  lands  or  old  turf  in  the  Western  States  are  frequently  chosen.  Some  former 
New  York  flax  growers  inclined  to  a  heavy  clay  for  the  production  of  fi1)er  and  seed, 
though  a  wet  soil  will  be  fatal  to  success.  A  soil  full  of  the  seeds  of  weeds  is  to  be 
avoided  above  all  things,  and  weeds  should  be  eliminated  by  })revious  cultivation  as 
far  as  possible. 

Soil  preparation. — In  this  country  too  little  attention  is  paid  to  the  importance  of 
deep  plowing  and  reducing  the  seed  bed  to  the  proper  tilth.  Many  foreign  flax  grow- 
ers urge  that  the  laud  should  be  fall  plowed,  though  there  are  some  who  are  of  a  dif- 
ferent opinion,  but  it  is  recognized  by  all  that  tbe  land  should  be  brought  almost  to 
the  condition  of  garden  soil  before  the  seed  is  sown.  On  small  tracts  of  a  few  acres 
in  Europe  this  is  accomplished  by  spading  over  the  land,  although  such  laborious 
methods  can  not  be  adopted  in  the  United  States.  Deep  fall  plowing  with  a  cross 
plowing  in  the  spring  is  a  good  practice  to  ibllow.  Where  there  are  heavy  clay  loams 
two  plowings  in  the  spring  will  give  better  results  than  one.  The  number  of  har- 
rowings  will  depend  wholly  upon  the  ]um])iness  of  the  soil,  as  all  clods  must  be  broken 
up  and  the  soil  made  line  and  even.  The  roller  should  be  used  to  make  the  ground 
as  smooth  and  level  as  j)ossihlo  and  to  press  into  the  soil  any  small  stones  that  may 
be  upon  the  surface.  Heavy  lands  that  from  their  situation  are  liable  to  to  be  more 
or  less  covered  with  surface  water  during  the  winter  should  be  avoided.  On  account 
of  the  extra  labor  necessitated  upon  heavy  land  it  is  better,  therefore,  to  choose  the 
medium  soils  that  will  yield  readily  to  the  action  of  the  elements  and  to  the  plow 
and  harrow. 

Fertilizimj . — On  the  new  lands  of  the  West  good  crops  may  be  grown  for  a  number 
of  years  without  manures,  tliough  in  time  fertility  must  be  exhausted  and  poor  crops 
will  inevitably  follow.  Tlie  flax  crop,  of  all  crops,  makes  heavy  demands  upon  the 
soil,  and  for  this  reason  it  is  frequently  called  an  exhaustive  crop.  Tlio  stem  of  the 
flax  plant  is  tall  and  slender,  growing  rapidly,  and  the  long  roots,  as  they  push  down 
deeply,  must  have  something  to  feed  upon  to  make  vigorous  growth  and  good  straw. 
It  is  on  account  of  this  habit  of  tlie  jilant  to  extend  its  roots  to  such  depth  in  the 
earth  that  plowing  and  line  tilth  are  so  esseiitial ;  and  the  roots  must  lind  food  or  the 
plant  will  be  of  slow  growtli,  woody,  and  deficient  in  fiber,  and  the  product  inferior 
both  as  to  quality  and  quantity.  Any  crop  is  exhaustive  to  the  soil  that  is  grown 
year  after  year  on  the  same  land,  where  everything  is  taken  away  and  nothing 
returned.  In  Belgium  and  other  (lax-growing  countries,  where  land  has  been  under 
cultivation  for  generations,  stable  nmnure  is  applied  to  the  laud  befoie  winter  sets 
in.  Then  in  spring,  before  sowing  time,  the  ground  is  heavily  treated  with  fer- 
tilizers, or  niglit  soil  in  solution  is  poured  over  it.  A  great  deal  of  the  material  is 
brought  from  the  towns  and  kept  in  closed  receptacles  or  reservoirs  until  the  time 
for  using  it  on  the  ground.  Stable  manures  are  used  in  connection  with  chemical 
fertilizers.  Of  the  latter  it  is  common  to  employ  from  GOO  to  800  kilograms  per  hec- 
tare, or,  roughly,  from  500  to  750  pounds  per  acre,  aud  to  go  over  the  ground  with 
the  li(|uid  night  soil  in  addition.  Stable  manures  should  l)e  well  rotted  to  avoid  foul- 
ing the  crop  with  weeds,  which  germinate  and  grow  with  the  flax.    Dr.  Ure  formerly 


224  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

recommended  ii  mixture  of  30  pounds  of  potasli,  28  of  common  salt,  34  of  burnt  gyp- 
sum, 54  of  bone  dust,  and  56  of  magnesia,  ^vbich  it  was  claimed  would  replace  the 
constituents  of  an  average  acre  of  flax.  Dr.  Hodges,  of  Ireland,  many  years  ago  pro- 
posed tbe  following,  which  he  concluded  by  analysis  would  replace  the  inorganic 
matter  renu)ved  from  the  soil  by  2  tons  of  flax  straw:  Muriate  of  potash,  30  pounds; 
common  salt,  25  pounds ;  burnt  gypsum,  34  pounds ;  bone  dust,  54  jjouuds,  and  sulphate 
of  magnesia,  50  pounds.      This  is  very  similar  to  the  formula  given  by  Dr.  Uro  above. 

notation  of  crops. — A  systematic  rotation  of  crops  is  considered  essential  in  all 
flax-growing  countries,  though  little  practiced  in  the  United  States.  A  rotation 
formerly  followed  in  New  York,  covering  three  years,  was  Indian  corn,  barley,  oats, 
winter  and  spring  wheat,  and  red  clover,  the  corn  being  planted  on  land  plowed 
from  clover  sod.  The  cleaning  process,  to  rid  the  soil  from  weeds,  began  with  the 
first  crop  which  followed  the  clover  sod.  The  Helgiau  farmers  are  particularly 
careful  in  this  matter.  In  the  Courtrai  region  the  occupancy  of  the  laud  with  flax 
varies  from  five  to  ten  years,  the  average  being  about  eight  years.  In  eastern  Flan- 
ders it  is  five  to  nine,  and  in  the  Brabant  five  to  eight.  In  some  other  sections  a 
much  longer  time  elapses  between  two  crops  of  flax,  and  several  generations  back 
fifteen  and  even  eighteen  years  were  sometimes  allowed  to  intervene.  A  common 
rotation  is  clover,  oats,  rye,  wheat,  and  in  some  cases  hemp.  Crops  of  rape,  tobacco, 
beans,  and  vegetables  (these  latter  crops  on  farms  contiguous  to  towns),  or  even 
onions  and  salsify,  are  grown  as  in  middle  Belgium.  Clover  is  considered  one  of  the 
best  crops  to  precede  a  crop  of  flax,  as  its  nunuirous  roots  go  deep  into  the  soil,  and 
from  their  decomposition  not  only  furnish  nutriment  to  the  growing  flax  roots,  but 
enable  them  more  easily  to  push  down  into  the  subsoil. 

SoiviiKj  the  need. — An  old  rule  in  this  country  was  to  sow  when  the  soil  had 
settled  and  was  warmed  by  tbe  influence  of  the  sun,  and  weeds  and  grass  had  begun 
to  spring  up  and  the  leaves  of  trees  to  unfold.  In  fact,  no  definite  rule  can  be  laid 
down,  experience  being  the  best  teacher,  as  the  seeding  must  be  largely  governed  by 
atmospheric  conditions.  Too  early  sowing  may  result  in  injury  to  the  growing 
plants.  A  practice  followed  by  some  farmers,  especially  where  the  soil  is  at  all 
weedy,  is  to  allow  the  land,  after  it  is  put  in  condition,  to  lie  until  the  ^V'eeds  appear; 
then,  just  before  sowing,  give  tbe  surface  a  light  harrowing,  when  the  greater  part 
will  be  killed. 

In  regard  to  the  manner  of  seeding  the  crop,  it  is  usually  put  in  by  hand,  broad- 
cast; in  foreign  countries,  tbe  experts  at  the  business  going  from  farm  to  farm,  as 
their  services  are  required.  The  seeding  is  accomplished  in  this  country  both  by 
hand  broadcasting  and  by  means  of  the  drill,  though  the  latter  method  can  not  be 
recommended.  The  work  should  be  done  with  great  regularity  to  secure  an  even 
growth  of  straw  and  the  same  standard  of  fineness  for  difl'erent  portions  of  the  field. 
The  objection  to  drilling  in  the  crop  is  that  the  outside  straw  will  always  be  coarser 
than  that  straw  in  the  center  of  the  drill  row,  and  also  will  have  a  tendency  to  branch. 
The  practice  in  Flanders  is  to  sow  in  the  morning  and  harrow  the  seed  in  with  a 
dose-set  harrow;  and  after  the  seed  has  germinated,  the  land  is  rolled.  When  flax 
is  grown  for  seed  without  regard  to  fil>er,  it  is  sown  thin,  at  the  rate  of  2  to  3  pecks 
of  seed  per  acre,  in  order  that  the  plants  shall  branch  and  produce  as  large  a  crop  as 
possible.  A  large  seed  is  also  desirable.  When  the  production  of  fine  fiber  is  the 
object,  a  thicker  sowing  is  necessary,  say,  from  li  to  3  bushels  per  acre.  This  pre- 
vents branching,  the  plants  are  shaded,  and  a  crop  of  clean,  slender,  straight  straw 
is  the  result.  In  Belgium,  where  the  finest  fiber  is  produced,  the  amount  of  seed 
sown  varies  ordinarily  from  21  to  3  bushels  per  acre,  though  in  one  district  (Hai- 
naut)  it  is  claimed  that  the  quantity  sown  is  sometimes  double  this  amount.  Prob- 
ably 3  bushels  per  acre  comes  nearer  the  general  practice.  Some  growers  hold  that 
more  should  be  used  when  the  sowing  is  late  than  when  early;  at  any  rate,  when 
planted  too  thickly,  as  is  sometimes  the  case,  it  is  atterwards  thinned,  though  such 
a  practice,  of  course,  adds  just  so  much  to  the  cost  of  ])roduction. 

Good  fiber  can  not  bo  grown  from  the  average  seed  of  the  oil  mills.     Imported  seed 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE. 


225 


gives  the  best  results,  but  if  this  can  uot  be  obtained  seed  must  be  sown  that  has 
been  produced  from  plants  grown  for  their  fiber,  also  from  selected  seed.  A  proper 
llaxseed  should  be  pure,  free  from  the  seeds  of  weeds  and  from  all  odors  which  would 
indicate  mustiness  and  bad  condition  that  would  alieet  its  germinating  power.  The 
foreign  grower  in  purchasing  his  seed  is  subjected  to  a  dozen  forms  of  fraud,  and 
the  only  safe  plan  pursued  is  to  buy  of  reputable  dealers  exclusively.  In  all  cases 
the  heaviest,  brightest,  and  plumpest  seed  should  be  preferred.  J.  E.  Proctor,  of 
Kentucky,  writing  upon  this  subject  many  years  ago,  advocated  the  white-blossom 
Dutch  as  the  best  seed  for  American  flax  growers.  Eugene  Bosse,  a  j^ractical  flax 
grower,  states  that  his  preference,  based  upon  several  years'  experience,  is  for  (1) 
*'Eiga  seed,  once  sown  in  Belgium"' — that  is  to  say,  imported  seed  grown  on  Belgian 
soil  from  seed  procured  in  Kiga;  (2)  seed  imported  direct  from  Riga,  but  it  must  be 
Riga  and  not  Finland  seed; 
(3)  Dutch  (Rotterdam)  seed, 
and  (-I)  American  seed,  whicli 
he  reports  "as  good  as  Nos. 
2  and  3  when  well  cultivated, 
though  it  will  not  stand  the 
drought  as  well."'  No.  1  will 
produce  about  8  bushels  of 
seed  to  the  acre,  Xo.  2  10 
Imshels,  and  Xo.  3  between  8 
and  10  bushels. 

WecdiiKj  the  crop.— In  for- 
eign countries  this  work  is 
done  priucijially  by  women 
and  boys,  who  go  over  the 
ground  on  their  knees,  pick- 
ing out  the  weeds  by  hand. 
This  work  is  done  usually 
when  the  plants  are  from  1  to 
2  inches  high,  though  a  sec- 
ond and  sometiuies  a  third 
weeding  is  found  necessary. 
The  American  flax  grower  must 
avoid  the  lalxir  of  weeding  by 
having  clean  land,  made  as 
nearly  clean  as  possible  by 
careful  culture.  Wliere  weed- 
ing becomes  necessary  it  is 
performed  when  the  plants 
are  less  than  5  inches  high.  I'l^-  7G.— Methoil  oflurmiug  stooks. 

Harvest hig.— In  Flanders  and  other  portions  of  Belgium  where  the  seed  is  of  sec- 
ondary importance,  and  the  main  object  is  to  obtain  asstrongand  fine  fiber  as  possible, 
the  flax  is  pulled  before  it  is  fully  ripe,  or  when  it  is  just  beginning  to  turn  yellow, 
coarse  flax  ripening  earlier  than  fine.  The  work  is  done  (or  begins  usually)  the  last 
week  in  June,  sometimes  a  little  earlier,  for,  according  to  one  of  the  old  proverbs, 
"June  makes  the  flax."  An  Irish  rule  is  to  pull  at  once  when  the  straw  begins  to 
turn  yellow  and  the  foliage  within  6  inches  of  the  ground  is  drooping.  For  the  best 
results,  when  the  desired  end  is  fine  fiber,  the  straw  must  be  pulled.  This  is  not  the 
usual  practice  of  the  Western  flax  grower,  wlio  cultivates  for  seed,  however,  and  it 
has  been  urged  that  it  is  absolutely  essential,  where  the  object  is  to  produce  both 
fiber  and  seed,  or,  to  state  it  more  precisely,  when  the  object  is  to  produce  a  comnum 
grade  of  fiber  and  at  the  same  time  save  the  seed.  If  the  laud  surface  is  made  very 
smooth,  so  that  the  knives  of  the  reaper  may  be  set  low,  cutting  by  machine  (rather 
12247— Xo.  1> 15 


226  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

than  pulling)  may  answer.  Several  inches  of  the  best  portion  of  the  stem  will  be 
lost  and  the  sqnare  ends  of  the  fiber  ^yill  not  work  into  tlie  "silver"  as  smoothly  as 
pulled  liax  when  tlie  fiber  is  being  manipulated  in  the  iirst  stages  of  manufacture. 
A  flax -pulling  machine  is  a  desideratum,  and  for  the  past  two  or  three  years  inventors 
have  attempted  to  worlv  out  the  problem.  Wliere  flax  is  pulled  by  manual  labor,  the 
course  is  to  draw  the  handful  of  straw  out  of  the  ground,  and  by  striking  the  roots 
againbt  the  boot  the  earth  is  dislodged.  The  straw  is  then  laid  in  handfuls,  crossing 
each  other,  so  as  to  be  readily  made  into  bundles.  In  Belgium  the  ilax  is  laid  in 
handfuls  upon  the  ground,  a  line  of  straw  being  first  laid  down,  which  serves  to 
bind  these  handfuls  when  a  sufficient  quantity  has  been  pulled  to  tie.  When  pat 
into  stooks  to  dry,  the  seed  ends  being  tied  together,  the  bottom  euds  are  opened 
out,  giving  to  the  stook  the  appearance  of  an  A  tent.  (See  fig.  76.)  After  drying  iu 
tlie  stook,  the  handfuls  of  straw  are  tlien  tied  into  small  V)unches,  or  "beets,'' and 
piled  sometliing  as  cordwood  is  piled  in  this  country,  two  poles  being  first  laid 
upon  the  ground  to  prevent  injury  to  the  bottom  layer  by  damjiuess,  and  two  poles 
driven  at  each  end  of  the  jtile  to  keep  the  "hedges"'  iu  form. 

In  th<^  matter  of  saving  the  seed  the  common  American  practice  has  been  to  drive 
the  straw  through  an  ordinary  thrashing  machine,  securing  the  seed,  but  rendering  the 
straw  utterly  worthless  in  its  tangled  and  broken  condition.  Some  attempts  have 
been  made  to  save  the  straw  even  with  the  ordinary  thrasher  by  opening  the  con- 
cave. This  is  done  so  that  the  teeth  will  just  come  together;  then  with  one  man  to 
open  and  pass  in  the  bundles,  another  takes  them  bj^  the  butt  ends,  and,  spreading 
them  fan  shape,  presents  the  seed  end  to  the  machine.  The  straw  is  not  released, 
but  is  withdrawn  as  soon  as  the  seed  is  torn  off,  when  the  bundles  are  again  tied. 
The  operation  is  not  fully  satisfactory,  and  the  necessity  of  a  rapid  flax  thrasher 
has  stimulated  invention,  and  several  machines  have  been  presented  which  will  do 
the  work  more  or  less  etfectually,  though  an  absolutely  successful  machine  for  this 
purpose  is  yet  a  desideratum.  In  the  old  days  of  flax  cultivation  in  Aew  York 
whipping  the  seed  capsules  against  a  sharp  rock  set  at  an  angle  of  45'  was  the 
method  resort»'d  to.  In  foreign  countries  various  methods  are  resorted  to  from  hand 
thrashing  to  jiassing  the  bundles  through  powerful  machines  with  iron  cylinders  so 
constructed  that  only  the  heads  are  crushed,  the  straw  remaining  iu  the  hands  of 
the  operator  during  tlie  entire  operation. 

Jiettiiig  the  straw. — Three  natural  modes  of  steeping,  or  retting,  are  rticoguized — 
dew  retting,  po(d  retting,  and  retting  in  running  water.  There  are  also  inany  proc- 
esses for  quick  retting,  srherft  th£  temperature  of  the  water  is  controlled,  and  also 
when  chemicals  are  used,  but  few  of  these  have  given  good  results,  and  the  flax  of 
the  world  is  largely  retted  by  natural  methods  rather  tlian  by  "processes,"  so  called. 
For  dew  retting  a  moist  meadow  is  the  projjcr  ])laee,  the  fiber  l)eing  spread  o\er  the 
ground  in  straight  rows  at  the  rate  of  a  ton  to  an  acre.  If  laid  about  the  1st  of 
October,  and  the  weather  is  good,  a  couple  of  weeks  will  siiflice  for  the  proper 
separation  of  the  fiber  and  woody  matter.  When  the  retting  is  progressing  unevenly 
the  rows  are  opened  with  a  lork  or  turned  with  a  long  ])ole.  For  pool  retting  the 
softest  water  gives  the  l>est  results,  and  where  a  natural  ])Ool  is  not  available,  such 
as  the  "bog  holes"  iu  Ireland,  "steej)  pools"  will  have  to  be  built.  A  pool  30  feet 
long,  10  feet  wide,  and  4  feet  deep  will  suffice  for  an  acre  of  flax.  Spring  water 
should  be  avoided,  or,  if  used,  the  pool  should  be  filled  some  weeks  before  the  flax  is 
ready  for  it,  in  order  to  soften  the  water.  It  should  l)e  kept  free  frcuu  all  mineral 
or  vegetable  impurities.  The  sheaves  are  packed  loosely  in  the  pool,  sloping  so  as 
to  rest  lightly  on  their  butt  ends,  if  at  all,  for  it  is  considered  best  to  keep  the 
8hea*Fes  entirely  under  water  without  allowing  them  to  come  in  contact  with  the 
bottom.  Irish  growers  cover  with  long  wheat  straw  or  sods,  grass  side  down,  the 
whole  kept  under  water  by  means  of  stones  or  other  weights.  Fermentation  is 
shown  by  the  turbidity  of  the  water  and  by  bubbles  of  gas,  and  as  this  goes  on 
more  weights  are  required,  for  the  flax  swells  and  rises.  If  ]>ossible,  the  thick  scum 
which  now  forms  on  the  surface  should  be  removed  by  allowing  a  slight  stream  of 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  227 

water  to  fiow  over  the  pool.  The  fiber  sinks  when  decomposition  has  been  carried 
to  the  proper  point,  thongli  this  is  not  always  a  sure  indication  that  it  is  just  right 
to  take  out.  In  Holland  the  plan  is  to  take  a  number  of  stalks  of  average  fineness, 
which  are  broken  in  two  places  a  few  inches  apart.  If  the  woody  portion  or  core 
pulls  out  easily,  leaving  the  fiber  intact,  it  is  ready  to  come  out.  The  ojieration 
usually  re(|uires  from  five  to  ten  days. 

The  finest  fiax  in  the  world — the  famous  fiax  of  the  Courtrai  region  of  Belgium — is 
retted  in  the  sluggish  waters  of  the  river  Leys.  This  is  called  by  the  French 
roiiissage  an  courarit,  which  was  described  as  follows  in  the  writer's  report  on  Belgian 
Flax  Culture,  1890: 

"Crates  or  frames  of  wood  are  used,  having  solid  floors  of  boards,  the  sides  being 
open.  These  measure  about  12  feet  square  and  perhaps  a  meter  in  height,  or  a  little 
over  a  yard.  First  a  strip  of  jute  burlap  is  carried  around  the  four  sides  on  the 
inside,  coming  well  to  the  top  rail  of  the  crate.  This  is  to  strain  the  water,  or  to 
keep  out  floating  particles  or  dirt  which  would  injure  the  flax  by  contact  with  it. 
The  bundles,  which  measures  to  10  inches  through,  are  composed  of  ''beets"  laid 
alternately  end  for  end,  so  that  the  bundle  is  of  uniform  size  throughout.  They  are 
stood  on  end  and  packed  so  tightly  into  i)lace  that  they  can  not  move,  each  crate 
holding  about  2,000  to  3,000  pounds  of  straw.  A^'hen  a  crate  is  filled  the  entire  top 
is  covered  with  clean  rye  straw  and  launched  and  floated  iuto  position  in  the  stream. 
It  is  then  weighted  with  large  paving  blocks  or  other  stones  until  it  has  sunk  to  the 
top  rail,  when  it  is  left  for  the  forces  of  nature  to  do  the  reuuiinder.  The  time  of 
immersion  is  from  four  to  fifteen  days,  dependent  upon  temperature  of  the  water 
and  of  the  air,  quality  of  flax,  and  other  influences.  There  are  several  delicate 
tests  which  indicate  when  the  flax  should  come  out,  although  the  near  approach  of 
the  time  is  made  known  by  the  self-raising  of  the  crate  out  of  the  water  (often  a 
foot  or  more),  caused  by  the  gases  of  decomposition.  When  ready  to  remove,  the 
crate  is  floated  opposite  a  windlass — and  there  are  many  along  the  shoie — the  chain 
attached,  and  the  aflair  pulled  halfway  up  the  bank,  when  the  bundles  are  at  once 
removed.  The  big  bundles  are  taken  back  to  the  field,  and  are  now  broken  up  and 
again  put  into  the  form  of  the  little  "A"'  tents  already  described.  This  work  is  done 
by  l)oys,  who  show  great  dexterity  not  only  in  spreading  and  standing  up  the  little 
bundle  when  it  is  first  opened  for  drying,  but  in  the  subsec^uent  operation  of  turning 
the  tent  completely  inside  out,  so  that  the  straw  that  was  shaded  in  the  interior  may 
be  subjected  to  the  air  and  sunshine  and  the  drying  be  accomplished  evenly.  After 
this  drying  process  is  completed,  the  flax  again  goes  into  the  big  bundles  for  a  second 
immersion,  and  I  was  told  sometimes  a  third,  though  rarely.  This  work  begins  in 
September  and  continues  imtil  too  cool  to  ret  the  flax  advantageously.  Then  it 
begins  again  in  March  and  continues  until  all  the  flax  has  been  retted.  Much  of 
the  unretted  flax  is  carried  aver  to  the  next  year  in  this  manner.  Not  only  is  it 
thought  to  improve  the  flax  in  quality,  but  is  better  for  the  producers,  enabling 
them  to  hold  their  product  for  good  prices  when  the  fall  prices  are  low."  (Report 
No.  1,  Fiber  Investigation  Series,  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag.) 

For  an  account  of  the  practice  followed  in  the  cultivation  of  flax  for  household 
linen,  see  Report  No.  4  of  the  above  series,  page  37. 

EcoNOAiic  c<»xsiiJEi!ATioxs.^Flax  culture  for  fiber  can  not  be  established  in  the 
United  States  on  the  lines  of  practice  in  foreign  countries.  As  the  case  stands,  the 
farmer  is  hardly  in  position  to  grow  flax,  save  in  an  experimental  way,  until  he  is 
sure  of  a  market,  and  the  manufacturer— that  is,  the  spinner — is  not  in  a  position  to 
make  otters  of  purchase  or  to  name  price,  because  he  is  not  sure  that  the  farmer  can 
grow  flax  of  the  proper  stau<l;ird,  or  that  he  can  afi'ord  to  purchase  at  any  price,  for 
his  ])articular  manufacture,  such  flax  as  the  farmer  may  produce.  This  simply 
means  that  what  isolated  farmers  can  not  accomplish  alone  must  be  accom])lished 
by  the  establishment  of  little  local  industries.  To  borrow  a  foreign  term,  the  future 
flax  industry  of  the  riiited  States  must  hn  communal;  that  is  to  say,  capital  must 
establish  scutch  mills  in  localities  where  flax  may  be  profitably  grown,  farmers  of  the 


228  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

neighborhood  agreeing  to  produce  5,  10,  or  20  acres  of  straw  each,  under  tlie  direc- 
tion, if  need  be,  of  the  managers  of  the  mills,  to  insure  the  growth  of  a  quality  of 
straw  that  will  give  the  proper  standard  of  fiber.  This  relieves  the  farmers  from 
any  responsibility  in  the  matter  further  than  to  i)roduce  a  proper  crop  of  straw. 
The  scutch  mills  or  tow  mills  attend  to  the  retting  and  cleaning  of  tlie  liber,  which 
in  turn  is  sold  to  the  spinner.  One  good  scutch  mill  Mill  jirepare  the  llax  grown  on 
a  score  or  more  of  farms,  and  as  the  work  is  accomplished  under  one  direction,  the 
product  will  be  far  inore  even  as  to  standards  than  would  be  possilde  were  it  pre- 
pared by  twenty  different  men.  In  Canada  and  in  northern  Michigan  (in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Yale,  where  there  are  successful  scutch  mills)  the  practice  is  to  sell  the 
seed  to  the  farmers,  at  the  mills,  at  a  fixed  price  per  bushel,  the  farmers  agreeing  to 
sow  a  certain  number  of  acres  to  Jlax,  the  straw  from  which  the  managers  of  the 
scutch  mills  agree  to  take  at  a  fixed  price  per  ton,  in  some  cases  $10  being  named. 

The  farmers  of  the  United  States  use  imiiroved  implements  and  machines  in  all 
farm  operations,  and  American  farm  imidements  are  recognized  as  the  finest  in  the 
world.  What  invention  has  done  for  other  rural  industries  is  possible  for  the  ilax 
industry,  and  by  the  use  of  improved  machines  in  every  stage  of  (iax  culture  the 
<lifference  in  wages  between  this  country  and  the  Old  World  will  be  more  than 
equalized.  The  ".Vmerican  practice,"  means  simply  an  intelligent  i)ractice,  for  the 
growth  of  both  fiber  and  seed,  achieving  economical  production  by  the  employment 
of  labor-saving  machinery,  even  in  the  pulling  of  the  fiax  straw.  Fine  ilax  can  be 
grown  in  the  United  States,  providing  the  farmers  grow  it  intelligently  and  perse- 
veringly — not  one  year,  or  two,  or  three,  but  year  after  year,  growing  each  year  a 
little,  and  growing  it  well. 

Statistical  kecouds. — Reference  has  been  made  to  the  large  crops  of  fiax  grown 
in  this  country  in  X)revious  years.  The  following  figures  of  yield  of  seed  and  fiber, 
for  five  i)eriods,  from  1849  to  1889,  are  reproduced  from  rejtorts  of  the  Eleventh  Censiia : 


Tear. 


1849. 
1859. 
18C9- 
1879. 


BusbeLs. 


Pounds  of 

fiber. 


562,312  i 

7,  709,  676 

.506,867  ' 

4,  72(1,  145 

l,7:iO,  444  , 

27, 13:{,  034 

7, 170,  951 

1,  565,  546 

10,  250, 410 

241, 389 

For  tlie  figures  of  yield  by  States,  sec  Hullt;tin  No.  177,  Eleventh  Census,  by  John 
Hyde. 

The  States  producing  fiber,  largely  coarse  toAV  for  upholsterers" use,  in  1889,  in  the 
order  of  importance  are  lUimiis.  Kansas,  Michigan,  *  Virginia,  Ohio,  New  York, 
*Kentucky,  Minnesota,  Iowa,  Wisconsin,  Indiana,  *  West  Virginia,  *  North  Carolina, 
South  Dakota,  "Tennessee,  Maine,  Missouri,  Nebraska,  North  Dakota,  Pennsylvania, 
and  Arkansas,  the  first  with  a  record  of  57,776  pounds,  and  the  last  named,  11  pounds. 
The  figures  for  States  denoted  with  an  asterisk  (*)  doubtless  represent  in  part  the 
remnant  of  the  old  household  linen  industry,  for  in  1890  flax  was  still  grown  for 
homespun  in  the  mountain  regions  of  the  States  named.  The  total  figures  for  the 
States  thus  indicated  are  49,737  pounds.  Virginia  and  Kentucky  supply  over  30,000 
pounds  of  this  quantity,  and  showing  a  mixed  commercial  and  household  industry. 

Livistona  australis. 

One  of  the  few  palms  iound  in  Australia,  attaining  a  height  of  100  feet,  its  trunk 
being  a  foot  in  diameter.  The  species  of  this  genus  are  fouml  from  upper  Assam 
and  southern  China  through  Malacca  and  the  islands  of  the  Indian  Archijxdago,  as 
well  as  Australia. 

FiiiKii. — The  uuexjianded  leaves  of  L.  aiintralis  are  ]irepared  by  scalding,  and  dry- 
ing in  the  shade,  when  the  material  is  used  for,  making  hats. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  229 

/..  cliineiisifi  is  used  to  iiiako  coarse  Caliiics  for  I'aj^s,  otc,.,  and  also  for  cordage.  L. 
jcnldiixhoia  is  the  Toko  /'((/of  Assam,  and  is  used  for  niakin.i;- the  peculiar  nmlirella 
hats  of  the  natives. 

Llanchama  (Peru).     Sec  CoiinitarL 

Locust  (W.  Iiul.).     Hymoiaa  roiirhitril. 

Lodoicea  callipyge.     Double  Cocoanut  Palm. 

CoMJiox  NAMKS. — Coco  (Je  Miv,  Coco  (les  Maldires. 

This  species  of  palm  was  unknowu  prior  to  the  discovery  of  the  Seychelles  Islands 
in  1743,  but  its  immense  "  double  cocoaunts  "  were  often  I'onnd  Hoating  upon  the 
waters  of  the  Indian  Ocean. 

The  tree  has  a  nearly  cylindrical  trunk,  scarcely  exceedinij  a  foot  iu  diameter,  and 
bearing  a  crown  of  fan-shaped  leaves,  some  of  which  are  upward  of  20  feet  long 
and  12  feet  wide.  They  are  of  two  sexes,  both  of  Avhich  have  three  sepals  and  three 
petals  to  the  flowers,  those  of  the  females  being  large,  thick,  and  lleshy.  The  fruits 
externally  are  covered  with  a  thick,  tibrous  hnsk,  and  contain  iisually  one,  but  some- 
times two  or  even  three  immense  stones  or  nuts  with  excessively  hard  and  thick 
black  shells,  each  being  divided  half  Avay  down  into  two  lobes,  whence  the  popular 
name.  In  olden  times  important  medicinal  virtues  were  attributed  to  these  nuts, 
water  drunk  out  of  vessels  made  of  them  being  supposed  to  preserve  people  from  all 
complaints,  and  extravagant  prices  were  c<msequently  jiaid  for  them.  At  the  present 
day  they  are  converted  into  various  domesti^i  utensils,  while  the  wood  serves  many 
useful  purposes."     (Treas.  Botany.) 

Fiber. — From  th(>  dried  leaves  of  this  palm  many  useful  or  ornamental  articles 
are  manufactured,  such  as  hats,  fans,  baskets,  cigar  cases,  etc.,  and  the  leaves  are 
also  used  for  thatching. 

Lonicera  quinqiielocularis.     ITimalayan  Honeysuckle. 

An  Indian  plant,  also  found  in  southern  Afghanistan.  It  is  worthy  of  only  passing 
mention,  as  its  bast,  which  is  shed  iu  long  fibrous  strips,  is  only  suitable  for  ujihol- 
stery  purposes. 

Loof.     The  fiber  of  Luffa  (vgyptwa. 

Loto  (It.).     Celt  is  (iHsiralis. 

Lotus,  the  sacred  (Egypt).     See  Xelnmhinm. 

Luff  (Arab.).     Hi^e  lAifa. 

Luffa  aegyptica.     The  Sponge  Cucumbek.     Snake  Gourd. 

Syn.  Luffa  eylindrica,  etc. 

Exogeu.  Citcurhitacew.  A  climbing  vine. 
The  species  of  the  genus  are  said  to  be  natives  of  ti'opical  Asia  and  Africa,  though 
L.  ce.yiiptica  is  grown  in  many  parts  of  the  world.  Some  of  its  names  are  as  follows: 
Sponge  cucumber  or  Dish  cloth  plant,  Papinjay,  southern  United  States;  Estrdpajo, 
Venezuela;  Eaponga  vegetal,  Argentina;  Diin-dul,  Bengal;  Khujar,  Persia;  Luff, 
Arabia;  Hechima,  Japan;  etc.  Fig.  2,  PI.  VIII,  is  a  sponge  circumber  grown  by 
the  author,  together  with  a  specimen  of  the  commercial  sponge  imported  from 
Japan. 

FiHER. — The  dried  fruit,  after  frost,  is  a  network  of  interlacing  fibers  that  can  be 
used  without  further  preparation  .as  a  substitute  i'or  the  sponge,  for  bath  purposes; 
sometimes  used  as  a  fiesh  Itrush  in  the  Turkish  bath.  Some  very  fine  examples  of 
these  vegetable  sponges  were  secured  from  the  Japan  exhibit,  W.  C.  E.,  1893  (under 
the  name  L.  pefola),  the  iiber  being  used  by  the  .lapanese  "for  the  heart  of  hats,  the 
sole  of  sacks,  or  'Tabi'  for  stutfiug^  saddles,  in  place  of  sponges  for  washing,  etc." 


230  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

In  the  United  States  ornamental  baskets  are  sometimes  made  from  the  sponge 
cucumber,  and  among  tlie  curious  objects  of  the  museum  the  visitor  is  shown  a  l)on- 
net,  Avorn  in  the  South  during  the  hite  war,  made  entirely  of  this  fiber.  To  prepare 
it,  the  cucumbers  were  cut  through  lengthwise  ui)on  one  side  only,  and  opened  out 
flat,  the  fibrous  Avails  of  the  tul)es  before  mentioned  forming  longitudinal  ridges 
Avhieh  appeared  on  the  outside  of  the  bonnet.  Several  cucumbers  Avere  required  to 
make  tliis  dainty  head  covering,  which  Avas  seAved  together  and  afterwards  shaped 
with  scissors,  and  lined  on  the  inside  and  trimmed  with  pink  cambric.  The  fruit  is 
from  6  inches  to  1  foot  in  length,  the  interior  being  formed  of  a  dense  tissue  of  Aviry 
fibers  and  containing  three  longitudinal  tubes,  in  Avhich  are  found  the  numerous 
black  seeds. 

The  commkucial  iTvODUCt. —  The  vegetable  sponge  does  not  appear  to  bean  arti- 
cle of  trade  and  export  in  any  country  but  .Japan,  whicli  exports  over  1,000,000 
sponges  a  year.  They  are  chiefly  ex])orted  from  Yokohama,  and  some  from  the  ports 
of  Kobe  and  Nagasaki;  and  tlie  principal  destinations  of  exportatioii  are  London, 
Havre,  Hamburg,  San  Francisco,  Ncav  York,  Shanghai,  and  Hongkong. 

It  is  grown  in  every  part  of  .Ia]»an,  there  being  two  Aarieties  in  common  cultiva- 
tion— one  long  and  slender,  being  used  for  food,  and  the  other  more  plump,  as  a 
fiber  plant.  The  method  of  cultiA'ation  in  Japan  is  to  soav  the  seed  in  March,  in  a 
seed  bed,  transjdanting  to  the  cultiAated  fields  as  soon  as  the  plants  show  four  or 
five  leaA'es.  A  horizontal  network  of  bamboo  poles  is  constructed  above  the  plants, 
upon  which  the  A'ines  twine  and  spread.  Four  or  ti\  e  "  cucuni1)er8  "  are  groAvn  on  a 
l>laut,  and  21,000  may  be  grown  to  the  acre.      Ilic  hiirvest  is  in  September. 

Lupis.     A  form  of  inanila  hemi>.     See  Miisa  textilis. 

Lupulo  (Peril).     Hnmulns  lujjvlvs. 

Lycopodium  clavatum.     Running  Pine. 

LijcopodiaceiV.     A  club  moss. 

The  club  mosses  are  found  in  cold,  temperate,  and  tropical  countries,  some  being 
prostrate  in  their  hal)it  of  groAvth,  Avliile  others  are  erect,  the  latter  frequently  of 
large  size. 

L.  clavatum  abounds  in  this  country  in  woods  from  Labrador  to  Alaska,  south  to 
North  Carolina,  Michigan,  and  ^yashington.'  Also  found  in  Central  America  and  in 
Europe.  Tlie  species  can  scarcely  be  called  a  textile  plant,  though  in  Sweden  it  is 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  door  mats. 

Lygeum  spartum. 

Endogen.     Graminece.     A  perennial  grass. 

Native  names. — Sennoc  and  Alhnrdine  (Afr.);  known  in  Italy  as  Lacrhne  salva- 
iiche,  the  weeping  sylvan. 
Mediterranean  regions;  northern  Spain  and  nprthern  Africa.  The  jdant  is  often 
confounded  Avitli  the  true  esparto,  Stipa  tenaris-iima,  which  abounds  in  the  same 
regions,  and  A\'hich  is  the  commercial  esparto  so  largely  used  for  the  manufacttue  of 
paper.  L.  spartum  is  an  evergreen,  its  culm  solid  and  cylindrical,  from  1  to  Ih  feet 
in  height,  having  generally  only  one  node,  from  Avhich  ccmies  forth  the  last  leaf. 
The  leaves  are  Aery  narrow  and  from  40  to  70  centimeters  in  length,  smooth  and 
nearly  cylindrical,  sea  green  in  color,  A-ery  tenacious,  and  similar  to  those  of  Stipa 
tenacisitima. 

Stri'ctuhal  Fibek. — Both  si)ecies  are  used  in  Italy  in  basket  numufacture  and  as 
covering  for  the  protection  of  bottles,  these  articles  being  exported  to  the  United 
States  and  other  countries.  Savorgnan  states  that  while  the  term  Giunco  marino  (or 
sea  reed)  is  applied  to  scA'eral  species,  Lijf/eum  spartum  is  usually  understood.  Proba- 
bly used,  in  connection  with  other  species,  in  the  manufacture  of  Buscola  baskets. 
See  Juncus  acutus. 


DESCRIPTIVE   CATALOGUE.  231 

Lygoclium  scandens. 

Filices.  A  climbing  feru. 
The  species  of  this  geims  arc  widely  distributed  over  the  warmer  parts  of  the 
world,  extending  to  New  Holland,  Japan,  and  North  America.  Most  commonly  met 
with  in  our  greenhouses.  The  Kew  collection  contains  a  broom  made  in  Ceylon 
from  the  stipes  of  the  species  named,  while  the  stijjes  of  another  species,  found  ou 
the  Island  of  Luzon,  sup])ly  material  for  hats. 

Lyme  grass.     Elt/mna  arenarius. 

Lyonsia  reticulata. 

A  specimen  of  so-called  liber  from  the  seed  vessels  of  this  plant  was  received  from 
the  Queensland  collection  (Phil.  Int.  Exh.,  1^76).  It  is  worthless  as  a  "liber"  and 
can  only  be  classed  with  "  silk  cotton  "  from  the  Bombax,  and  with  "  vegetable  silk" 
from  pods  of  Asclejrias.  The  plant  is  a  creeper  belonging  to  the  dogbane  family, 
having  cucumber  shaped  pods,  which  are  the  source  of  the  liber.  The  plant  is  a 
native  of  Australia. 

Maana    (Ceyl.).     Aiuh-opixjon    )iardus   of  Diet.   Ec.    Prod.,  lud.     See 
A.  schcenanthus. 

Macanilla  (Yeiiez.).     See  Guilidma  sjDeciosa. 

Macauba  and  Maca^v  palm  (Braz.).     See  Acroeomia  sclcrocarjm  and 
A.  l((,sio,spatha. 

Machinery  for  extracting-  fibers.     See  Appendix  A. 

Macpalxochitlquahuitl  (Yne.).     Cheirosfemon  platanoides. 

Macrochloa  tenacissima  (see  Stip<i  teitacissima). 

Macrocystis  pyrifera.     Giant  Seaweed. 

This  is  a  remarkable  genus  of  dark-spored  Ahjw,  belonging  to  the  order  Lami- 
nariacew.  "  Many  species  have  been  proposed  by  authors,  but  all  are  reducible  to 
one,  M.  pyrifera,  which  girds  the  southern  temperate  zone  and  stretches  up  from 
thence  along  the  Pacific  to  the  Arctic  regions,  through  120  degrees  of  latitude. 
This  plant,  like  the  Sargassum,  has  been  celebrated  by  all  voyagers,  to  whom  it  is 
of  great  service  in  indicating  the  presence  of  rocks,  acting,  as  it  does,  like  a  great 
buoy.  Vast  masses  are  thrown  up  on  exposed  coasts,  where  it  is  rolled  by  the  waves 
till  it  forms  cables  as  thick  as  a  man's  body.  Single  plants  have  been, estimated  on 
reasonable  grounds  as  attaining  a  length  of  700  feet.  It  is  apparently  iudifterent  to 
cold,  if  not  extreme,  but  inasmuch  as  like  its  near  allies  it  is  a  deep-sea  Alga  it 
requires  a  depth  of  at  least  6  fathoms  for  its  growth."     {Rev.  M.  J.  Berkeley.) 

PSEUDO  Fiber. — This  is  not  strictly  speaking  a  fiber  plant,  though  it  affords  useful 
nuiterial  that  may  be  employed  in  the  j)lace  of  a  fiber  as  a  "cordage"  material.  No 
references  can  be  given,  but  I  have  been  informed  that  the  Macrocyslis  is  exten- 
sively employed  in  Alaska  for  the  manufacture  of  fishing  lines,  which  are  strong  and 
durable. 

Other  species  of  Algw  are  used  in  a  similar  manner.  W.  H.  Harvey,  in  Nereis 
Boreali-Americana  (Sm.  Inst.,  1858),  ou  the  authority  of  Lightfoot,  refers  to  the  use 
of  the  stems  of  Chorda  filmn,  which  often  attain  the  length  of  30  or  40  feet  and  which 
are  popularly  known  as  Lucky  Miuny's  lines.  These  are  skinned  when  half  dry,  aiul 
twisted  acquire  so  considerable  a  degree  of  strength  and  toughness  that  the  high- 
landers  somi'times  use  them  as  fishing  lines. 

Dr.  H.  Mertens,  in  Hooker's  Bot.  Misc.,  refers  to  a  similar  use  of  a  species  oi  Fxicus 
by  the  Aleutians.  It  is  said  that  these  fishing  lines  from  Ahja-  are  not  afiected  by 
freezing,  and  therefore  can  be  used  at  low  temperatures  without  danger  of  breaking. 


232 


USEFUL    FlBEli    PLAKTS    OF    THE    WOULD. 


Macrozamia  spiralis. 

This  species,  belougiug  to  the  Cyeadacc(v,  occurs  in  New  South  Wales,  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  }?euus  being  f(»und  chieliy  in  Australia.  *  Specimens  of  the  pulu- 
like  surface  fiber  are  preserved  in  the  Bot.  Mus.  Harv.  Univ.  Fig.  77  is  a  leaf  of 
M.  (lrniso7iii  in  the  Department  conservatory. 

Madar  fiber  or  Mudar  (lud.).     See  Calotropis  (/iffantca. 

Madras  hemp  (Iiul,).     See  Crotalnria. 

Maggio  piccolo  (It.).     Sec  CoroniUa  cmenis. 

Maguey    (Mex.),     See  Agare  mexicana 

and  A.  amcHcana ; hlando,     A. 

Halmiana;  dc  tequila,  A.  ameri- 

cana,  A.  irislizeiii,  etc. 

The  term  M(t()iiey,  with  anil  without  an  aflix, 
has  been  used  as  a  general  term  to  tlesignate 
numy  species  of  Agaves.  Ignacio  Blazcjuez 
enumerates  3S  species  and  varieties  of  Mafjneiis 
whicli  grow  or  are  cultivated  on  the  plains  of 
Apam,  and  names  16  species  and  varieties 
growing  or  cultivated  in  the  district  of 
Cholnla  which  yield  pnhine.  See  also  Agave 
poiulornm. 

Mah-line    or   Malaing   (P>urm.).      See 

lUo itssitnetia  papyri/era. 

Mahoe.     Also  written  Mahaut. 

This  name  is  applied  to  several  West  Indian 
and  South  American  s])ecies  of  iiialvaceous 
plants;  sometimes  written  Mahaut.  The  species 
named  in  this  work  are:  hord  la-vier,  Hib- 
iscus tiliacviin;    cousin    ,  Triumfelta    aemi- 

triloha;  blue  or  mountain ,  JfihiscKselatiis; 

red ,  Sterciiliarariboa;  Congo ,  Hibis- 
cus clypeaius;  seaside ,  Thcspesiaponuhiea; 

wild ,   Malvaviscus   arboreiis,  etc.;  

pin cet,  JP« J) i/era  ntilis,  see  Lagetta.  "Mahoe  is 
a  collective  name  for  the  bast  fibers  of  Paritium, 
Ochroma,  Thespesia,  Hibiscus,  etc.  The  word  is 
the  same  as  Majaf/un  used  in  Venezuela,  Colom- 
bia, and  other  countries."     (Dr.  Ernst.) 

The  name  Mahoe  is  applied  in  Trinidad 
indiscriminate!}-  to  the  genera  Paritium,  Thespesia,  J)aphnopsis,  Ochroma,  Aptiha, 
Heliocarpux,  and  many  others  producing  liast  tissue  or  fibrous  1)arks.  {J.  IT. 
Hart.) 

Maholtine  (Trin.).     Ahutil on periplocifofi a di  {no^v  Wis.sadula). 

Mahauli  and  Marvil  (Ind.).     See  BmiMnia  raccmosa. 

Maicha  (Peru).     See  MamiUaria. 

Maidenhair  fern  (see  Adiantum). 

Mayo  or  Maioh  (Burm.).     Calotropis  t/if/atitca. 


Tig.  77. — A  leaf    of  Macrozamia 
(tenisonii. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  233 

Maize,  or  Indian  Corn  (see  Zea  mays). 
Majagiia. 

A  collective  name  emi)loye<l  in  Spanish-speakinsf  conutries  for  the  bast  fibers  of 
malvaceous  and  similar  plants  (see  A/^a/ujt) ;  often  used  with  an  affix,  as  MajiKjua 
clarelUna  (see  Pachini).     Two  nnidentified  fibers  from  the  :\Iexii-an  exliibit,  W.  C.  E., 

1893,  were  named de  iomlUo,  and de  rejuco.     The  term  is  applied  in  Costa 

Rica  to  Hibiscus  tiliaceiis. 

Majaguillo  (Veiiez.).     See  MunUngia. 

Maka^v  palm  (Braz.).     Acrommia  scJerocarpa.      The   Great  Makaw 
Palm  is  A.  lasiospatha. 

Makkah,  Makkai,  Makkajari,  etc.     (Pers.  and  Iiid.)  Zc((  mays. 
Malachra  capitata.     Wild  (  )kra. 

A  malvaceous  shrub  occurring  in  tropical  America.  India,  and  other  countries; 
probably  a  native  of  South  America. 

FiBEii. — A  fine  example  of  its  bast  was  secured  from  the  exhibit  of  British  Guiana, 
W.  C.  E.,  1893,  which,  with  a  specimen  from  Trinidad,  is  shown  in  the  museum  col- 
lection. The  first  named  was  8  or  9  feet  long,  jute  like  in  appearance,  though  more 
yellow,  and  ratlier  coarse.  This,  or  an  allied  species,  is  found  in  Trinidad  where  the 
plant  grows  wild  in  damp  situations.  It  is  found  in  Venezuela.  Spon  states  that 
when  Avell  cleaned  it  is  almost  as  soft  as  silk,  having  a  silvery  luster,  and  is  8  to  9 
feet  in  length. 

In  India  it  is  supposed  to  be  an  introduced  plant,  native  of  the  Congo  basin  of 
tropical  Africa,  and  is  regarded  by  Dr.  Watt  as  a  jnte  substitute.  The  fiber  has 
been  much  admired  in  India,  but  ett'orts  to  introduce  it  into  cultivation  (in  Bombay) 
resulted  in  failure.  A  very  full  account  of  the  experimental  cultivation  of  M.  capitata 
in  India  appears  in  the  Die.  Ec.  Prod.  Ind,,  Vol.  V. 

In  Bernardin's  list  AT.  radiata  {Faronia  sessilijlora)  is  mentioned  from  Trinidad,  and 
M.  urens  from  Jamaica,  while  the  "  diiimaure,"  a  species  with  yellow  dowers,  found 
in  the  Antilles,  is  called  M.  orata. 

Malaguete  (Braz.).     Xylopia  scricea. 

Ma-lo  (Pigi).     See  BrouKSoneiia. 

Maloo  climber  (Ind.).     See  llaxldnia  racemosa. 

Mallo-w. 

The  common  mallow  of  India,  Malva  sylvestris.    The  musk ,  Hihiscus  ahelmos- 

chus ;  the  swamp  rose ,  U.  moschciitos :  the  Indian ,  Ahuiilon  aricenuo'; 

marsh  ,  Alfhaa  o^ciuulis;  velvet  ,  Laratera   inaritima.     Mallow  is  also 

a  collective  name  applied  to  the  family  of  malvaceous  plants. 

Malva  sylvestris. 

Exogen.     Malracea'.     Erect  glabrous  herb. 

Native  names. — Klmhaz  (Bomb,  and  Arab.);    llndmi  (Beng.)  etc.;  maitre  (Fr.). 
Western  temperate   Himalayas;    distributed   to   Europe,    Siberia,   and   northern 
Africa. 

Bast  Fiber. — Snon  states  that  the  fiber  of  M.  sylvestris,  M.  rulundifolia,  and  jU. 
crispa  are  widely  utilized.  M.  peruviana  is  credited  to  Peru,  and  .1/.  si/Ireslris  to 
Spain,  Portugal,  and  Italy,  as  well  as  to  India.  Royle  states  that  M.  sylcestris  abounds 
in  tiber. 

Malvalisco  (Braz.).     See  t^pharalcea. 


234 


USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


Malvaviscus  arboieus.     Wild  ^VFahoe. 

A  genus  of  malvaceous  shrulis  native  ot"  tropical  America  and  Mexico.  Said  to  be 
found  in  Mauritius. 

Fiber. — A  coarse  Last,  labeled  Ciiil,  secured  from  tbe  Mexican  ex;liibit,  W.  C.  E., 
1893,  was  referred  by  Dr.  Ernst  to  this  species.  Employed  for  native  uses.  Fiber  6 
to  7  feet  in  length.     Savorgnan  states  that  it  is  an  excellent  textile  material. 

"  Sprrimi'ii  of  the  liber,  Herb.  Col.  Univ..  N.  Y. 

Maniaki  (Hawiiiiu     See  I'i2)fun(s. 
Maiuillaria  senilis. 

A  genus  of  Cactuecir  for  the  most  itart  coniiued  to  Mexico.    M.-senilis  is  also  found 

in  I'eru,  known  as  Maicha.  Dorca 
states  that  it  produces  a  svirface 
fiber,  a  kind  of  yellowish  wool. 
The  revised  name  of  this  genus  is 
Cdclus. 

Tbe  genus  is,  in  most  instances, 
readily  distinguished  I'rom  its 
allies  by  the  lleshy  stem,  of  which 
tbe  jilants  solely  consist,  being 
entirely  covered  with  tubercles  of 
a  teat-like  form,  giving  rise  to  the 
generic  name,  from  uiamilla,  a  lit- 
tle teat.  These  are  disposed  in  a 
series  of  spirals,  each  teat  being 
furnished  at  the  top  with  a  tuft  of 
radiating  spines  ])roceeding  from 
a  kind  of  cusliion.  ^f.puHiUa  is  a 
very  ])retty  little  spe<ies,  growing 
in  crowded  tufts  usually  of  a  hemi- 
spherical shape.  The  mamilLe, 
which  are  about  the  size  of  grains 
of  wheat,  have  little  tufts  of  white 
hairs  between  them  and  bear  bun- 
dles of  spines,  consisting  of  from 
four  to  six  straiglit  stiff  inner 
ones  and  from  twelve  to  twenty 
outer  ones  like  white  hairs.  {A. 
Smith.) 

M.  coronaria,  reaching  5  feet  in 
height,  and  M.  clara.  both  Mexican 
species,  produce  a  ''white  wool." 
The  filjer  is  more  curious  than 
useful. 

Mandgay  (Bomb.),     ^ee  Bamhusa  anoidindcea. 
Mandua  (lutl.).     Eleusine  conuana. 
Manicaria  saccifera.     Tkoolie  Palm. 

Native  xame. — Itussii. 

A  Brazilian  palm  inhabiting  the  tidal  swamps  of  the  lower  Amazon,  the  individual 
leaves  of  which  often  measure  30  feet  in  length.    (See  lig.  78.) 

Each  gigantic  leaf  of  the  Troolie  palm,  Manicaria  saccifera,  is  really  a  shelter  in 
itself;  and  a  few  of  these  laid,  without  further  preparation,  so  as  to  overlap  like 
tiles,  make  a  perfect  roof.     Before  corrugated  zinc  was  introduce*!  a  large  trade  was 


Flo.  78. — The  Bussn  piihii,  Manicaria  saccifera. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  235 

carried,  on  between  the  Indians  and  tlie  planters  on  the  coast  in  those  leaves,  with 
which  to  thatch  bnildings  on  the  sugar  estates.     {E.  F.  im  ThurH.) 

Structukal  FirjER. — The  tibrous  spathes  of  this  jialm  are  well  adapted  for  use  in 
the  manufacture  of  caps,  mats,  etc.  They  are  also  converted  into  bags,  by  simply 
cutting  round  them  near  the  bottom  and  pulling  them  off  entire,  afterward  stretch- 
ing them  open  as  wide  as  possible  without  tearing.  When  cut  down  one  side  and 
opened  they  supply  a  coarse  but  strong  fabric,  or  kind  of  cloth. 

J/,  plnkviietii  is  a  Guatemala  species,  represented,  with  the  aliove,  in  the  Kew  Mus. 
collection — not  now,  however,  considered  as  distinct  from  the  above. 

Manila  hemp  (Phil.  Is.).     See  Miiiia  te.rtUis. 

Manorrin.     Chippewa  Indians.     Zizania  (((/iiafiia. 

Mao.     In  Jap.,  Cluua  grass,  lioehmeria ;   in  Hawaii,  Gossypium  tomen- 
tosKin, 

Maoutia  puya.     Wild  hemp  ;  Pua  hemp. 

Syn.  lioehmeria  puya,  and  B.  fniie.seen-s. 
Exogen.      Urticacea'.     A  shrub. 

Native  of  tropical  Himalayas,  Assam  Valley,  Burma,  Straits  Settlements,  and 
Japan.     Known  iia  poi,  pooali,  piiya,  kyUiki,  etc. 

Bast  Fiber. — Closely  resembles  the  fiber  of  the  Boehmerias  and  is  prepared  in 
the  same  manner.  ■'Fooah  is  principally  used  for  fishing  nets,  for  which  it  is  admira- 
bly adapted  on  account  of  the  great  strength  of  the  fiber  and  its  extraordinary 
power  of  long  resisting  the  effects  of  water.  It  is  also  used  for  making  game  bags, 
twine,  and  ropes.  It  is  considered  well  adapted  for  making  cloth,  but  is  not  much 
used  in  this  way."  (Foyle.)  For  further  accounts  see  Royle,  Fibrous  Plants  of 
India;  Watt,  Die.  Ec.  Prod.  Ind.,  Vol.  V;  Spon's  Enc,  Div.  III. 

Maraja  (liraz.).     See  Bactris. 

Marram,  or  Marum  IIoll.  (see  AmmopMla). 

Maranta. 

Many  species  of  the  genus  Maranta  have  been  referred  to  other  genera,  but  as  their 
fibers  are  unimportant  the  few  to  which  I  Hud  references  will  be  mentioned  under 
this  genus.  The  species  are  chiefly  natives  of  tropical  America,  though  AT.  arundi- 
iiacea,  which  supplies  the  arrowroot  of  commerce,  has  been  distributed  to  other  coun- 
tries. M.  sanguinea  (now  Stromanthe  sanguinea)  is  mentioned  both  in  Bernardin's 
Catalogue  and  in  the  Flax  and  Hemp  Commission  list,  the  fiber  being  (lescribed  as  2\ 
feet  in  length.  Fiber  has  also  been  produced  from  M.  arundinacea.  The  split  stems 
and  leaves  of  M.  dichotoma  (now  CUnogyne  dichotoma),  an  India  species,  are  made  into 
mats  to  use  as  awnings.  Maranta  ohliqna  (now  Inchnosiphon  obliqnus)  is  a  native  of 
British  Guiana.  Spon  states  that  the  fiber  is  used  by  the  Indians  for  making  their 
pegalls.     See  Ischnosiphon.     Fig.  79  is  M.  aruHdinacca. 

Marima  colorada  (Venez.),     See  Lecythis  coriacea. 

Marool  (Ind.).     See  Sansevieria. 

Marsdenia  tenacissima.     Rajmahal  Creeper. 

Exogen.     Asclepiadacea' .     Small  climber. 

Common  and  native  names.— Rajmahal  hemp  (Ind.);  Jiti  and  Chili  (Beng.); 
Muriird-dtil  (Ceyl.);  Tongtis  (Hind).     The  Jetee  fiber  of  Royle's  Indian  Fibers; 
sometimes  called  the  bowstring  creeper. 
India,  throughout   the   lower   Himalayas,  Assam,  and  Burmah;    Lower   hills   of 
Bengal. 


236 


USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


Bast  Finrij. — The  J(fe(^  fiber  of  liidiii.  The  ])laiit  is  aluiiulaut  in  tlio  Riijiii;iliiil 
bills  of  India  in  dry  and  liarren  places,  and  the  fibers  of  the  bark  are  employed  for 
making  bowstrings  by  the  mountaineers.  "The  fibers  arc  not  only  beautiful  in 
appearance,  bnt  strong  and  durable."  In  Dr.  Roxburgh's  tests  of  twine  made  from 
jetec,  he  found  that  in  the  dry  and  wet  states  it  bore  a  strain  of  218  and  343  pounds, 
when  hemi>  in  the  same  states  bore  1.58  and  190  pounds.  More  recent  tests,  however, 
l)lace  it  below  hemp  in  strength,  but  above  it  in  elasticity.  The  fiber  is  ninch  used 
for  making  nets,  and  is  not  liable  to  injury  by  being  kept  in  water. 

Marsh  grass,  or  salt  iiiarsli  j4i'iiss.     Sparthm  JH)i(e((. 


Fig.  l^.—Maianta  anmdinacca. 


Martynia  louisiana.     Devil's  Horns. 

8yn.  Mto-ti/itia prubosciden . 
Exogen.     I'ldaliacew.     Herbaceous  shrub. 

Nativk  names. —  Testa  di  Quaglia  (It.).     An  allied  species  is  known  in  Mexico 
as  Unguhis  Dlaboli. 
A  Mexican  plant,  but  found  in  the  western  United  States.     The  species  of  this 
genus  are  natives  of  tropical  America.     A  starch  is  obtained  from  their  tubers. 

FiHKU. — The  pods  of  Mariyiiia  loidftidiia  at  maturity  shed  their  fragile  outer  coat, 
leaving  an  inner  part  of  an  exceedingly  tougn,  fibrous  nature,  black  on  the  outside, 
and  with  two  slender,  divergent  hooked  horns,  commonly  4  to  .5  inches,  or  rarely  12 
inches,  in  length.  These  horns  are  easily  split  into  thinner  strands,  and  in  this  form 
are  used  by  several  tribes  of  Indians  in  the  southwestern  United  States  to  make  the 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  237 

black  ornamental  figures  of  tlieir  finely  woven  baskets.     (/'.  I'.  CnriUe.)     See  nniler 
SaVtx  Iimiandra. 

Marul  and  Murva  (Hind.).     Sdusevierhi  zci/Ianica. 

Marzuolo  (straw  plait)  (It.).     See  Trit'u-um. 

Massette  (Fr.).     Typha  anf/K.stif'olid. 

Mastinazia  spp. 

I  tind  no  reference  to  this  geuns  other  than  in  the  manuscript  notes  supplied  by 
Mr.  Porca,  of  Lima,  Pern.  The  Cdmona,  M.  cariotifolia,  and  the  Chonia,  M.  cilinta, 
are  said  to  yield  fibrous  bark.     Camona  also  given  to  an  Iriartea. 

Mata-mata  (Braz.).     Lecythis  corlacea. 
Matapalo  (Peru).     Ficun  dendrocida. 
Matondo  (Afr.).     See  Brachystcyio. 
Mats  and  matting. 

For  table  of  fibrous  substances  used  for,  see  Economic  Classification,  page  32. 
Mati  (Viti).     Wilstrdemiafcetida. 
Matting,  commercial. 

Chinese  and  Korean,  refer  to  Ci/perus  tegetiformis ;  Indian,  Ci/perus  eori/mbosus,  C. 
esciilentiis,  C.  tef/etitin  ;  Japanese,  Ciiperus  unUa)if>  and  Jnnciis  effasus.  The  Tinnevelly 
mattings  of  India  are  made  from  C.  coryjnhosiis  and  <'.  fcgcfinii,  the  former  species 
Ijeing  tised  in  the  finer  kinds.  Other  species  of  rushes  and  sedges  are  also  employed 
in  matting  manufacture,  but  the  above  sjiecies  are  most  commonly  used. 

Maiiritia  flexuosa.     The  Eta  or  Ita  Palm. 

Endogen.     rahnn-.     Palm  tree.  80  to  100  feet. 

Native  of  Brazil,  but  found  in  British  Guiana  and  other  regions  of  South  America. 
Abundant  on  the  banks  of  the  Amazon,  Rio  Negro,  and  Orinoco  rivers.  Kuo^vn  in 
Venezuela  as  the  Moriclie  palm.  The  Aijuajv  of  Peru.  The  sap  yields  a  palm  wine, 
the  leaves  supply  another  beverage,  and  a  sago  is  prepared  from  the  soft  inner  por- 
tion of  the  stem.  The  tree  often  inhabits  swampy  ground  liable  to  inundation. 
(See  fig.  80.) 

STRUCxrRAL  Fiber. — This  is  prepared  from  the  outer  skin  of  the  young  leaves, 
the  strips  from  which  dry  in  a  thread-like  form.  It  is  known  as  Tihisiri  fiber  iu 
British  Guiana,  where  it  is  used  by  the  natives  for  hammocks  and  general  cordage 
purposes.  According  to  E.  F.  im  Thurn,  "the  leaf  when  fully  developed  is  fan- 
shaped,  but  it  first  appears  folded  in  a  spike,  which  springs  from  the  very  center  of 
the  plant.  It  is  from  this  spike  that  the  fiber  is  obtained.  Fiber  taken  from  the 
spikes  of  old  idants  is  not  nearly  as  strong  as  that  taken  from  young  plants.  Each 
leaf  or  spike  is  taken  ofi'  singly;  a  sharp,  dextrous  rub  at  the  top  se])arates  the  outer 
skin,  and  the  whole  is  then  torn  ofi".  This  is  the  fiber,  the  rest  is  waste.  It  is  fur- 
ther prepared  by  boiling,  drying  in  the  sun,  and  twisting  into  strings.  The  fiber 
from  a  dozen  long  spikes  is  sufficient  to  make  a  large  hammock.  Both  Tihisiri  and 
Croiria  fiber  are  twisted  into  string  in  a  very  simple  and  ingenuous  way,  but  one 
which  would  be  impossible  to  all  except  people  such  as  these  Indians.  A  proper 
number  of  parallel  fibers  are  held  firmly  by  one  end  in  the  left  hand,  the  remainder 
of  the  fibers  resting  across  the  naked  right  thigh.  The  palm  of  the  right  hand  is 
laid  across  the  fibers,  and  therefore  parallel  to  the  thigh.  By  a  very  rapid  downward 
and  sideward  motion  of  the  right  hand,  followed  by  a  slight  backward  motion,  the 
fibers  are  rolled  downward  along  the  thigh  and  become  spirally  twisted.  The  single 
straw  is  used  for  hammocks,  three  strands  for  bowlines,  and  three  of  the  triple  cords 
(sometimes  nine  strands)  for  making  hammock  ropes." 


23S 


USEFUL  FIBER  PLANTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


In  Venezuela  the  fiber  of  tlais  palm,  known  as  Morichc,  is  used  for  making  reins 
and  cordage.  "In  fineness,  strength,  and  durability  tlie  fiber  is  surpassed  by  that 
obtained  from  Astrocaryum  vuJgare''  (8pou).  Among  the  products  of  this  palm 
exhibited  in  the  Kew  Mns.  are  fans  and  baskets  and  a  lauoe  sail  from  British 
Guiana,  the  latter  made  from  central  portions  of  the  leaf  stalk;  also  sandals  made 
from  the  leaf  stalk  by  the  Wascari  Indians.  "The  most  useful  fiber  to  the  natives 
of  British  Guiana."     {(/iiclch.) 

* Specimim.—\J.  S.  Nat.  Mus. 

Mauritia  vinifera.     The  Muriti  1»alm. 

A  Brazilian  species,  known  also  as  th<^  win<^  pahn  of  Para.  It  is  a  tall,  graceful 
species  with  a  cylindrical  trunk.     The  wine  or  juice  "is  obtained  by  cutting  down 


^^^t^m^^^^' 


Fig.  80.— The   Ita   i>aliu,    Mauritia 
fh'xuosa. 


Fk;.  81. —Tilt'  Carana  palm,  Mauritia 
actileala. 


the  tree  and  cuttiug  into  the  trunk  several  holes  about  6  inches  square,  three  inches 
deep,  and  about  G  feet  apart.  In  a  short  time  these  Indes  become  filled  with  a  red- 
dish colored  li([uid  which  forms  a  very  agreeable  drink.  On  the  Rio  Negro  the  hard 
outside  portions  of  the  trunk  are  used  for  building  purposes."  (Off.  Guide  Kew  Mus.) 
It  also  produces  a  pulp  which,  when  boiled  with  sugar,  is  made  into  a  sweetmesit. 
The  young  leaves  and  cuticle  of  the  leaves  form  the  ra'w  material  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  hammocks  and  mats.  In  the  handbook  Notes  of  the  State  of  Para,  W.  0.  E., 
1893,  the  fiber  is  called  huriiy,  and  is  said  to  be  used  for  hats,  baskets,  .nnd  cordage. 
Another  species  is  noted  in  Brazil.  M.  aculeaia,  which  'produces  fibers  of  admirable 
fineness,  resistance,  and  brilliancy."     (See  fig.  81.) 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  239 

Mauritius  hemp  (see  Fnrcraa  gigantea). 
Maurvi  (Iiid.).     Tliiead  of  Sansevieria  zeylanica. 
Mauve.     French  name  for  Malra  sylretitris. 
Ma-'we'wel    (Ceyl,).     See  Cahonxs  rudi'iitum. 
Maximiliana  regia.     The  Ixa.ta  Palm. 

Kmlogen.     I'almn  .     I'nhn  tree,  100  feet. 
One  of  the  noble  palms  of  the  Amazon,  which  is  crowned  with  leaves  30  to  40  feet 
long.     The  woody  spathes  are  so  hard  they  will  stand  iire  when  filled  with  water, 


^ijMX^ — 


Fig. 82. — The  liiajii  palm,  MaxiiniUnna  ri'tjia. 

and  are  sometimes  employed  as  cooking  utensils.     Tliey  are  also  used  for  transport- 
ing mandioca.     There  are  many  other  nses  of  the  tree  in  the  domestic  economy. 

.Structural  Fibf:i:. — Extracted  from  the  leaves  by  the  natives  and  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  all  kinds  of  native  cordage,  hats,  etc. 

Mazool  (Iiul.).     See  Sansevieria  roxhiirghiana. 

Mbocaya  (Arg.  Ivep.),     See  Acroconiia  tolai. 

Mecomba.     (Apr.).     See  Jiracfiystegia. 

Megasse  (see  Bagasse). 


240  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

Meibomia.     See  Desmodium. 

Melic  grass,  purple.     MoUnia  c(vruJen. 

Melaleuca  armillaris.     Swamp  Tea  Tree. 

Exogen.     Miirtareir.     Small  tree  or  shrub. 

The  genus  is  reiuesented  by  several  species,  for  tlie  most  jiart  iiativ«'s  of  Australia 
and  the  Indian  Ocean.     The  above  species  abound  in  Tasuuinia. 

Bast  I'ihkr. — The  friable  lamellar  bark  can  be  converted  into  an  excellent  blot- 
ting paper — perhaps,  also,  filtering  paper.  It  is  Avorthy  of  record  that  many  species 
of  this  genus  yield  a  very  similar  bark,  formed  of  innuuierable  membranous  layers. 
The  most  gigantic  species  of  the  genus,  Melaleuca  leucadendroii,  which  is  common  in 
south  Asia  and  tropical  Australia,  exhibits  such  a  bark,  which  thus  may  be  turned 
to  account.     {Dr.  Ferd.  von  Mueller.) 

Melilotus  alba.     White  Sweet  Clover. 

COAIMOX  NA.MKS. — Also  Called  white  melilot  and  bokliiira  clover. 

Of  Eastern  origin,  it  is  now  found  in  Asia,  Europe,  and  North  America ;  comnum  in 
many  portions  of  the  United  States,  where  it  may  be  recognized  by  its  sweet  odor, 
particularly  when  cut. 

SritucTURAi^  FiBKK. — This  can  scarcely  be  called  a  fiber  ]>]aut,  though  specimens 
of  fibrous  substance,  extracted  from  its  dead  stalks,  liave  been  sent  to  the  Depart- 
ment. As  the  stalks  souietimes  grow  to  a  height  of  6  or  7  feet  (in  Alabama)  the 
fiber  on  the  old  stalks  in  the  field  blowing  in  the  wind  are  sure  to  attract  attention. 
It  might  answer  for  paper  stock,  though  there  are  many  better  i)lauTs  for  the  purpose. 
Bernardin  also  enumerates  the  species  in  his  list. 

Melocanna  bambusoides. 

A  species  of  bamboo  found  in  India.  Its  stems  are  sometimes  beaten  into  liber  for 
various  uses.     I'or  some  of  the  uses  of  bamboo  see  Jiambii^a. 

Melochia  arborea. 

Syu.  M.  reliitiiKi. 

Exogeu.     Stcrculiacetv.     Shrub  or  small  tree. 
Andaman  Islands,  Malay  Archipelago,  and  Burmah,  hotter  })arts  of  India,  etc. 
Fiber.— Tliis  is  known  as  hethm-da.     It  is  a  bast  fiber,  which  when  twisted  into  a 
stout  cord  is  Avoven    into  the  turtle  nets  used  by  the  fishermen  of  the  Andaman 
Islauds.     yU'att.) 

Melodinus  monogynus. 

A  species  oi'  A pocijnaeetr  found  in  Sylhet,  which  according  to  Roxburgh,  produces 
a  strong,  tough  fiber.  He  notes  that  iu  steeping  the  stems  in  a  stream  it  killed  the 
fish.     Watt  says  the  fiber  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  hemp. 

Merulius  lachrymans  (see  under  Volyporus). 
Mesta  pat  (Iliiid.).     See  Hihiscns  cannabinus. 
Metl  ( Yuc).    Maya  uame  for  the  Agaves. 
Metroxylon  sagu.    The  Sago  Palm. 

Syn.     SdgitH  rnmjyhii. 
This  genus  of  palms  comprises  six  species,  natives  of  the  Malay  Archipelago,  New 
Guinea,  aud  Figi.     M.  Kagii,  a  native  of  the  Moluccas,  Suuiatra,  and  Borneo,  supplies 
a  ])art  of  the  s.igo  of  commerce,  which  is  extracted  from  the  jiith.     It  has  been  called 
"a  plant  between  a  fern  and  a  palm."     (See  fig.  83.) 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE. 


241 


Structural  Fiukr. — Savorgiiau  states  tLiit  tbo  2)laiit  "is  much  sought  lor  the 
beauty  of  its  fiber,  from  which  is  manufactured  chith  as  well  as  very  iiuo  luattings. 
A  delicate  texture  is  uiadc  I'roui  the  fdaiueuts  drawn  from  the  youug,  undeveloped 
leaves. 

Mexican  fiber.     Aijare  Jietcracantha. 

Mexican  grass,     l^ame  sometimes  given  to  sisal  liemj). 

Mexican  whisk.     Epicampes  macrourn. 

Miyanioe  (Buriu.).     See  Andropoyon  .sqKarronK.s. 


Fk;.  83.— TIio  Sago  palm,  Metroxylon  smju. 

Milk  ■weed.      The  Swamp,  Asclepias  incarnata.     See   also  Asclepias 
syriaca,  the  common . 

Minbaw  (Burm.),     Canjota  urens. 

Mirganji  jute  (see  Corchorus). 

Miriti  palm.     Same  as  Mnriti.     See  Mauritia. 

Mitsumata  (Jap.).     See  Edf/ctcorthia. 

Mocou-niocou.     Galadhim  f/iganteiim. 

Mod,  Mad,  and  Mdda.     (Iiul.).     Coco.s  nvri/era. 

Mohii  (Hopi).     Yucca  gJauca. 
12i>47— No.  0 16 


242 


USEFUL    P^IBER    PLA^;TS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


Molinia  Ccerulea.     Purple  Melic  Grass. 

Also  known  in  England,  of  wbicli  country  it  is  a  native,  as  lilue  moor  grass.  Has 
been  proposed  for  pajjcr  making,  and  samples  of  paper  stock  niKl  finished  jiajier  made 
from  it  are  shown  in  the  Kew  Mns.  It  was  shown  in  the  Belgian  section  of  the 
Vienna  Exposition  as  a  wrapping  for  Limburger  cheese. 

Monguba  (Braz.).     tSee  Bontbax  iHi(u(/uba. 


Fl(i.  S4.— T,o;if  of  Monslera  ihliriota. 

Monkey  bass  (Braz.).     Leopold iiiia  pi<iss<iha. 
Monkey  bread  tree.     (See  Ado  ii  so  it  to.) 
Monkey  pot.     Lecythis  oJlorio. 
Monstera  deliciosa. 

Dorca  includes  this  in  his  manuscript  list  of  the  fibers  of  Peru,  the  roots  having 
been  used  in  that  country  for  lopes.  The  plant  is  better  known,  however,  for  its 
fruit.     I'requently  found  in  greenhouses  in  this  country.     (See  fig.  84.) 

Moonja  (Ind.).     See  Socchartim  munjo. 
Moorva,  or  Moorgavee  (Ind.)     See  JSanserieria. 
MooseTvood  (IJ.  S.).     See  ]>irca  poluntris. 
Mora  hair.      Tillondsio. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  243 

Moraea  robinsoniana. 

Au  Iris-like  plant,  knowu  as  the  wedding  llower  of  Lord  Howe's  Island.  Christy 
mentions  that  its  leaves,  which  are  5  feet  long  and  3  inches  broad,  yield  a  line  liber 
by  boiling. 

Moriche  fiber  (Yeiiez.).     Maiiritia  Jiexuosa. 
Morning  glory  fiber.     (See  Tpomcea.) 
Mororo  (Braz.).     See  Banhinia. 
Morus  alba.     White  Mulberry. 

Exogen.     Moracea'.     A  tree,  40  to  50  feet. 

Said  to  bo  a  native  of  China  and  the  north  of  India.  Its  leaves  are  used  as  food 
for  silkworms,  together  with  M.  indica.  M.  mulHcaidis  is  the  variety  of  M.  alha 
Avhich  was  planted  so  largely  in  this  country  luany  years  ago  at  the  time  of  the 
"multicaulis  fever,"  when  an  attempt  was  made  to  introduce  silk  culture  into  the 
United  States. 

Bast  Fiber.— The  bark  from  twigs  of  M.  alha  and  M.  iiidira  haxe  been  emi^loyed 
for  pai)er  stock  in  China,  and  the  twigs  without  maceration  have  been  used  in  India 
as  a  tie  material.  Savorgnan  says  that  the  plaut  has  become  naturalized  in  south- 
ern Europe,  where  it  is  kuown  as  Gelso  reale,  or  royal  mulberry,  and  is  suitable  for 
paper  as  well  as  cordage.  M.  nigra,  cultivated  chiefly  for  its  fruit,  gives  a  good  fiber, 
said  to  have  been  used  for  cordage. 

Morus  rubra.     Eed  Mulberry. 

CoM.MON  NAMES. — Red  mulberry,  black  mulberry,  Virginia  mulberry,  Miirier 
sauvage.     (Fr.) 

Western  Xew  England  and  Long  Island,  New  York,  west  through  southern  Ontario 
and  central  Michigan  to  Dakota,  eastern  Xebraska  and  Kansas,  south  to  Biscayne 
Bay,  Florida,  and  the  A'alley  of  the  Colorado  Eiver,  Texas.  Wood  used  in  fencing, 
for  cooperage,  etc.,  and  in  the  South  for  boat  and  ship  building. 

Bast  Fiber, — The  fiber  of  this  species  is  much  used  by  the  Indians  for  the  manu- 
facture of  ropes,  mat&,  and  baskets.  A  good  cloth  is  made  from  the  liber  of  the 
young  shoots.  Specimens  of  the  bark  and  fiber  of  this  species  were  sent  to  the 
Department  from  Missouri,  prepared  experimentally  by  Henry  Koenig,  Both  twigs 
and  sprouts  were  used.,  the  former  giving  the  best  fiber.  Only  interesting  from  the 
botanical  standpoint. 

Mound  lily  (Austr.).     Yucca  f/loriosa. 

MoTvana  (Afr.).     Adunsonia  dujitata. 

Mucuja  (Braz.).     ^qq.  Acrocomia  la.siosjxiflta. 

Mucuna  (I>raz.).     Common  uauie  of  2Iucnn<i  urciiH. 

Mucuna  urens. 

A  genus  of  leguminous  plants  found  chiefiy  in  tropical  Asia  and  America,  though 
represented  in  Africa  and  the  Fiji  Islands.  "The  plants  of  this  genus  are  well 
knowu  to  travelers  in  tropical  countries  from  the  exceedingly  annoying  character 
of  the  seed  pods,  which  are  thickly  covered  with  stinging  hairs  easily  detached  by 
the  slightest  shake,  and  causing  great  irritation  if  they  happen  to  fall  upon  ex])osed 
parts  of  the  body"  (Treas.  Botany,  Y.  2).  The  species  named,  known  as  the 
Mucuna  in  Brazil,  furnishes  a  fiber  for  very  strong  ropes. 

Mudar  (see  Calotropis  aiyanien). 


244  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

Muhlenbergia  pungens. 

Eudogcn.     Graminew.     A  perennial  grass,  12  to  18  inches  high. 
Common  XAMES. — Black  grama,  Grama  China;  Native  Hopi  Indian  name,  Wiigsi, 
from  wiigti,  "woman,  sihii,  flower,  a  satiric  name. 
Grows  abnndantly  in  Nebraska,  southward  to  New  Mexico  and  Arizona,  and  along 
the  Colorado  River  above  Fort  Yuma.     ''A  rather  rigid  perennial,  with  lirm,  sharp- 
pointed  leaves  and  open  panicles.     It  has  strong,  creeping  roots,  and  often  does  good 
service  as  a  sand  binder.     In  the  sand  hills  region  of  Nebraska  it  grows  abundantly 
around  the  borders  of  the   so-called   'blow-outs,'  preventing  their  extension   and 
assisting  materially  in  restoring  the  turf.     In  some  parts  of  Arizona  Avhere  it  occurs 
it  is  a  valuable  forage  plant."     (Scrihner.) 

Structural  Fiker. — "The  Hopi  women  of  Arizona  use  this  grass  as  a  brush,  the 
same  bunch  of  grass  serving  a  double  purpose — with  the  stiff  end  they  brush  the 
hair  and  with  the  more  llexible  tip  end  they  sweep  the  lloor."     (./.  Walter  Fewkvs.) 

Muhuba-branca. 

Native  name  of  an  uuidcntilied  species  of  timber  tree,  .SO  to  40  feet  high,  growing 
on  the  banks  of  the  Amazon.  The  bark  is  used  for  calking  canoes.  A  reddish  dye 
is  also  obtained  from  the  bark,  used  for  coloring  fishing  lines. 

Muka. 

According  to  Roylc,  a  native  name  of  New  Zealand  Hax  fiber. 

Mulberry. 

The  white ,  Morns  alba  ;  the  Indian ,  M.indica;  the  black ,  M. 

n'ujra :  the  red ,  M.  rubra;  paper ,  Broussonetia papyrifera ;  A'irginia , 

M.  rubra. 

Mummy  cloth. 

The  linen  of  ancient  Egyjit,  employed  as  "winding  sheets"  for  the  deiid,  hundreds 
of  yards  sometimes  being  used  to  wrap  a  single  body.     Made  from  flax. 

Munj  grass  or  Munja  (lud.).     See  Saccharum. 

Muntingia  calabura. 

Exogcn.     Tiliacew. 

Habitat,  tropical  America.  It  abounds  in  the  West  Indies  and  South  America, 
where  its  wood  is  valuable  for  many  purposes,  and  especially  for  making  staves. 
In  Venezuela  it  is  known  as  Majaguillo. 

Bast  Fiber. — Specimens  were  received  from  the  Venezuelan  exhibit,  I'hil.  lut. 
Exh.,  1876,  prepared  by  Dr.  Ernst,  who  state<l  that  its  bark  was  sometimes  used  for 
coarse  ropes  and  cordage.  Its  bast  is  very  soft  and  pliable,  twists  easily,  and  if  used 
in  this  manner,  without  attempting  to  separate  or  clean  the  fibers,  is  possessed  of 
ordinary  strength.  The  fibrils  are  exceedingly  fine  and  silky,  so  much  so  that  the 
bast,  when  broken,  exhibits  at  the  point  of  rupture  the  flo.ssy  appearance  always 
seen  at  the  raw  ends  of  skein  or  embroidery  silk.  Separating  the  fiber  would 
undoubtedly  diminish  its  strength.  It  is  employed  slightly  in  Santo  Domingo  for 
cordage. 

Muraro  (Braz.).     See  BanJiinia  splendens. 

Murier.     French  for  mulberry.     See  Morun. 

Muriti  palm  (Braz.).     See  Manritia  vinifera. 

Muru-murii  (Braz.).     See  Astrocaryum  murumuru, 

Muriiruni  (see  Mnriii,  above). 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  245 

Muruva-dul  (Ceyl.).     Marsdcnia  ienacixshnn. 
Musa  basjoo.     The  Baxana  of  Japan. 

Exogeu.     ^fusavea'. 

The  species  of  this  geuus  abouml  in  the  tropical  and  snhtropical  regions  of  both 
hemispheres,  and  supply  the  fruits  known  as  the  hanana  and  the  plantain.  The 
genus  includes  one  of  the  most  important  commercial  fibers,  the  manila  hem]*,  J/. 
iextilis,  which  is  described  in  its  appropriate  place.  M.  hasjoo  is  cultivated  iu  Japan 
where  its  filler  is  also  produced  connnercially. 

Structural  Fiber. — Beautiful  examples  were  received  from  the  Japan  court,  AV. 
C.  E.,  1893,  together  with  specimens  of  the  native  cloths  made  from  it.  The  liber  is 
a  light  salmon  iu  color ;  is  4  to  5  feet  long,  bright  and  lustrous,  and  possesses  fair 
strength.  Regarding  the  specimens  of  cloth,  I  learn  that  the  forms  labeled  "  Yec- 
higo  cliijimi  (a)  and  Olinaica  jydfu  (&)  are  used  for  summer  dresses  of  the  higher 
classes  of  Japanese.  Bashofn  (c)  is  not  used  for  cloth,  but  for  ornamental  bordering 
of  "  Kdlemo,"  and  in  place  of  wall  paper,  etc." 

Economic  coxsidkratioxs. — In  the  descriptive  catalogue  of  the  exhibit  it  is 
stated  that  the  banana  is  only  grown  commercially  in  Okinawa  prefecture,  "though 
it  is  widely  distributed  in  the  districts  in  the  temperate  zone  where  they  are  planted 
for  ornamenting  gardens  only,  accordingly,  the  annual  produce  of  the  fiber  is  not  so 
great.  The  fiber  is  white  in  color  and  coarse  to  the  touch.  It  is  woven  into  cloth 
known  by  the  name  " Hashlfu,"  which  is  highly  esteemed  for  undershirts  for  sum- 
mer, as  it  is  lighter  by  about  three-fourths  to  three-fifths  of  the  weight  of  hemp  and 
flax,  and  does  not  stick  to  the  skin  when  perspiring.'' 

Musa  sapientum.     The  Common  Banana. 

This  species  and  2f.  paradisiaca  are,  respectively,  the  banana  and  plantain  of  trop- 
ical America,  Asia,  and  Africa,  in  which  countries  they  have  been  cultivated  from 
remote  times,  and  where  they  are  especially  prized  for  their  fruit.  This  article  of 
food  is  so  well  known,  however,  both  in  its  fresh  state  and  as  plantain  meal,  that 
its  importance  to  the  natives  of  the  tropics  need  not  he  dilated  upon  here.  These 
species  abound  everywhere  in  tropical  America,  from  Florida,  in  the  United  States, 
through  Central  America  and  the  West  Indies  to  subtropical  South  America.  "While 
some  writers  have  considered  the  banana  and  plantain  as  distinct  species,  the  later 
botanical  authorities  as  a  rule  have  accepted  the  species  J/.  sa2)ictitiim  as  eml)raciug 
both  forms.  The  number  of  cultivated  races,  however,  which  bear  fruits  differing 
widely  in  appearance  and  quality  is  veiy  large. 

Structural  Fiber. — The  Department  collection  is  rich  in  specimens  of  banana 
fiber  received  in  the  i>ast  few  years  from  many  localities,  though  I  dd  not  know  that 
the  fiber  is  at  present  produced  in  commercial  (juantity  anywhere  in  the  three  Amer- 
icas. The  fiber  from  the  stalks  of  Florida-grown  plants  that  I  have  extracted  by 
machinery  is  very  weak.  Specimens  from  farther  southward  are  better,  though  still 
do  not  apiiroach  in  strength  the  fiber  of  manila  hemp.  In  Mexico  and  Costa  Rica, 
M.  sapientum  is  known  as  pJatano,  but  in  Venezuela,  according  to  Dr.  Ernst,  M.  para- 
disiaca is  known  as  the  pJatano  and  M.  sapientum  as  the  guineo.  In  the  New  South 
Wales  Catalogue  (Phil.  Int.  Exh.,  1876),  it  is  stated  that  "Musa  sapientum,  so  gen- 
erally planted  in  New  South  AVales  for  its  fruit,  yields  a  fiber  second  only  iu  value 
of  its  kind  to  that  of  the  manila  hemp,  which  is  obtained  from  Musa  textHix." 

Speaking  of  M.  paradisiaca,  Forltes  Royle  says  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  large  cul- 
tivated plantain  of  India  contaius  a  considerable  quantity  of  strong  fiber,  in  the 
same  way  "that  the  yellow  plantain  does  in  Jamaica,"  and  it  seems  worthy  of  inquiry 
whether  the  wild  and  useless  plantain  growing  at  the  foot  of  the  Himalayas  "may 
not  yield  a  stronger  fiber  than  any  of  the  cultivated  kinds."  A  very  full  and  com- 
plete account  of  this  industry  is  given  in  Simmonds's  Commercial  Products  of  the 
Vegetable  Kingdom  by  a  corresiiondent  iu  Jamaica.  The  plantain  may  be  considered 
a  valuable  plant  for  i>aper  making,  and  its  fiber  might  possibly  be  extracted  for  this 


246 


USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


pnri)Ose  alone  at  a  considerable  profit.     Dr.  Royle  suggested  utilizing  the  plant  for 
this  purpose  in  India  nearly  forty  years  ago. 

As  to  the  strength  of  plantain  fiber,  experiments  by  Dr.  Royle  gave  most  satisl'ac- 
tory  re.sults.  Fiber  from  ^ladras  bore  a  weight  of  190  pounds,  while  a  specimeu 
from  Singajiore  stood  a  strain  of  360  pounds,  and  Russian  hemp  bore  190  pounds. 
"A  twelve-thread  rope  of  (India)  jdantain  liber  broke  with  861  pounds,  when  a 
single  rope  of  pintiapiile  broke  with  924  pounds."  Compared  with  lOnglish  hemp  and 
manila  (see  experiments  in  tenacity,  under  head  of  Musn  tejiilis),  a  rope  3^  inches 
in  circumference  and  2  fathoms  long,  made  in  Madras  in  1850,  gave  the  follow- 
ing  results:  The  plantain,   dry,   broke  at  2,330  pounds  after  immersion  in  water 

twenty-four  hours;  tested  seven 
days  after,  2,387;  and  after  ten 
days'  immersion,  2,050.  Manila 
rope  and  English  hemp  dry,  gave 
■1,669  and  3,885  pounds,  respec- 
tively. Though  common  plan- 
tain fiber  is  not  possessed  of  the 
strength  of  manila  hemp,  yet  it 
is  fitted  for  many  purposes  of 
cordage  and  canvas,  and  some  of 
the  finer  kinds  for  textile  fabrics 
"of  fine  quality  and  luster." 

Economic  considerations. — 
The  correspondence  with  the  De- 
partment regarding  the  utiliza- 
tion of  banana  iiber  in  Florida 
has  been  (juite  large,  many  speci- 
mens have  been  sent  in,  and  inter- 
esting statements  regarding  the 
possible  production  of  the  fiber 
have  been  made  that  I  regret  can 
not  be  produced  in  this  limited 
space.  In  1891  Mr.  St.  Hill,  of 
Trinidad,  sent  sjiecimens  of  both 
forms  of  fiber  to  the  Department, 
and  states  that  irom  5  to  6  iiounds 
can  Ite  ])roduced  from  each  stalk. 
The  stalks  grow  8  to  9  feet  high, 
and  800  of  them  may  l>e  produced 
on  an  acre  of  ground.  Mtisa 
parndiniaca  grows  4  to  5  feet  high, 
produces  2  to  3  pounds  of  liber  to 
the  stalk,  800  stalks  to  the  acre. 
It  is  the  same  as  the  plantain,  except  that  it  is  loss  in  size  and  quantity,  and  is  pre- 
pared in  the  same  way. 

J.  H.  Hart,  director  of  the  Trinidad  l>otanical  Gardens,  says  that  the  fiber  can  be 
prei)ared  from  the  stems  by  any  of  the  ordinary  scra))ing  machines  now  in  use.  The 
chief  difficulty  with  the  extracting  is  the  large  percentage  of  water  in  the  stem. 

Extraction  of  the  fiber. — Forty  years  ago  or  more  the  production  of  banana 
and  plantain  fiber«must  have  been  a  considerable  industry  in  .Jamaica.  In  the  Com- 
mercial Products  of  the  Vegetable  Kingdom,  by  P.  L.  Simmonds  (London,  1854),  is 
given  an  exhaustive  account  of  the  cultivation,  harvesting,  and  extraction  of  banana 
fiber,  furnished  by  a  .Jamaican  correspondent,  from  which  it  is  gleaned  that  100 
pounds  of  stalk  will  give  about  15  pounds  of  fiber,  net  weight,  and  wlum  a  whole 
tree  furnishes  4  pounds  of  fil)er  one-fourth  of  the  quantity  is  derived  from  the  stalks. 
One  hundred  i)lautain  trees  can  be  crushed  in  twenty  minu.tes  with  one  horse,  allow- 


ri(i.  85. — The bauaua,  or  plantain,  Mii.a  sajiiriilinii, 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  247 

iug  live  minutes  for  rest.  After  iTusliiiii;-,  tlic  filier  was  boiled  to  s(!])arate  the  <;luti'U 
aud  coloring  matter,  carbonate  of  soda  and  (juicklime  being  nsed  as  cliemical  agents. 
To  make  3  tons  of  fiber  a  day  it  was  necessary  to  have  four  boilers  of  800  gallons 
each,  and  to  give  5  boilings  in  a  day,  which  amounted  to  1,650  pounds  of  net  fiber 
for  each  boiler,  or  6,650  jiounds  for  the  four  l)oilers.  About  300  pounds  of  soda  were 
required  and  a  proportionate  aniouut  of  quicklime.  As  the  difiereut  gr;ides  of  fiber 
were  i)ressed  separately  they  were  also  kept  separate  in  the  process  of  boiling,  the 
lighter  fibers  requiring  about  six  hours  to  bleach,  Avhile  the  darkest  retjuired  fully 
eighteen.  A  capital  of  $25,000  was  required  for  carrying  on  the  cultivation  of  the 
plantain  on  au  extensive  scale,  18  tons  of  liber  being  produced  on  5^  acres  at  a  cost 
of  $870,  or  a  little  more  than  $48  per  ton.  From  oflicial  statements  it  would  seem 
that  uo  sucli  industry  has  existed  in  Jamaica  in  late  years,  as  it  is  said  that  2,000,000 
banana  stems  are  cut  down  annually,  after  the  fruit  harvest,  "without  any  attempt 
being  made  to  utilize  the  fiber  they  contain." 

The  Bulletin  of  the  Royal  Kew  Gardens,  for  August,  1894,  contains  a  valuable 
summary  of  information  relating  to  bananas  and  plantains,  from  which  the  brief 
extracts'which  follow  have  been  taken: 

"In  Jamaica  a  series  of  experiments,  undertaken  by  Mr.  Morris  in  1884,  showed  the 
plantain  fiber  (Miisa  sa})ie)ilum  var.  paradisiaca)  was  whiter  and  iiner  thau  ordinary 
banana  filier  aud  that  it  approached  more  nearly  to  the  fine  glossy  character  of  ma- 
nila  hemp.  A  banana  stem  weighing  108  pounds  yielded  25  ounces  of  cleaned  fiber, 
or  at  the  rate  of  1.44  per  cent  of  the  gross  weight.  A  jilantain  stem  weighing  25 
pounds  yielded  7^  ounces  of  cleaned  fiber.  This  was  at  the  rate  of  1.81  per  cent  on 
the  gross  weight.  A  sample  of  fiber  prepared  from  a  red  banana  at  Trinidad  in  1886 
was  valued  in  London  at  £24  to  £25  per  ton.  Usually,  however,  banana  fibers  are 
not  worth  more  than  £12  to  £15  per  ton.  They  would  only  fetch  even  these  prices 
when  there  is  a  high  demand  for  '  white-hemp  fibers,'  and  there  happens  to  be  a  short 
supply  of  manila  and  sisal  hemps. 

"Mr.  A.  D.  van  Gon  Netscher,  when  proprietor  of  plantation  Klein  Pouderoyen,  on 
the  west  bank  of  the  River  Demerara,  in  1855,  furnished  the  following  interesting 
particulars  relative  to  fiber  from  the  plantain :  The  experience  of  ten  years  on  a 
cultivation  of  from  400  to  480  acres  in  plantains  has  shown  that:  1.  On  every  acre 
from  700  to  800  stems  are  cut  per  anntim,  either  for  the  fruit,  or  in  consequence  of 
having  been  blown  down  by  high  winds,  or  from  disease  or  other  reasons.  2.  The 
planting  of  the  suckers  at  distances  of  8  feet  apart  has  never  been  tried,  but  I  am  of 
ojiiuion  that  if  so  planted  and  cut  down  every  eight  mouths,  for  the  stem  alone,  an 
acre  would  give  from  1,400  to  1,500  good  stems  every  cutting,  or  about  4,500  in  two 
years.  3.  On  plantation  Klein  Pouderoyen,  after  repeated  trials,  the  plantain  stem 
on  an  average  has  been  found  to  give  2^  pounds  clean,  and  1^  pounds  vliscolored  and 
broken  fiber,  the  latter  only  iit  for  coarse  paper.  This  result,  however,  has  been 
obtained  by  very  imperfect  machinery.  4.  The  average  weight  of  the  plantain  stem 
is  80  pounds.  5.  The  stems  can  be  transported  from  the  field  to  the  buildings  for  $1 
per  100." 

Banana  fibers  from  Musa  sapientum  are  shown  in  the  Kew  Mus.  from  the  Anda- 
man Islands,  Jamaica,  Mauritius,  Ceylon,  British  Guiana,  Madras,  Australia.  The 
Jamaica  samples  cleaned  by  the  late  Nathaniel  AVilson  are  of  excellent  (pi.ality.  -  A 
sample  from  British  (iuiaua  was  valued  in  1892  at  £25  per  ton,  butusnally  the  price 
is  much  lower,  and  when  other  fibers,  such  as  manila  aud  sisal  hemps,  are  low,  banana 
fiber  is  practically  unsalable. 

Fiber  extracted  from  the  Abyssinian  banana  {Musa  enscte)  at  Jamaica  by  Mr. 
Morris  yielded  at  the  rate  of  1.16  per  cent  of  the  gross  weight.  The  fiber  was  some- 
what weak  aud  dull  lookiug ;  it  had  none  of  the  luster  of  the  best  plantain  fiber,  aud 
it  was  valued  in  London  at  £12  to  £14  per  ton. 

*  Specimens  of  fiber  and  cloth,  Mus.  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag. ;  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus. 

Musa  paradisiaca  (see  Musa  sapientum). 


248  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

Musa  textilis.    Manila  Hemp.    Wild  Plantain. 

Native  of  the  Philippine  Islands,  where  there  are  about  12  ditterent  varieties  of  the 
plant  under  cultivation.  Spon  states  that  the  largest  areas  are  grown  in  the  provinces 
of  Camarincs  Hud  Albay,  in  the  south  of  Luzon.  Smaller  areas  are  on  the  islands  of 
Samar  Leytc,  'Jehu,  and  Mindaneo.     Plants  are  said  to  he  found  in  Borneo  and  Java. 

Native  and  common  names. — Ahaca  (Phil.  Is.);  rissaiKjulan.  (MalayJ;  Manila 
and  Cebu  hemps  (English  and  commercial). 

The  Department  made  an  effort  to  introduce  this  plant  into  Florida  about  1890_ 
The  seed  was  well  distributed,  but  no  reports  were  received  further  than  that  it 
failed  to  germinate.  Attempts  to  introduce  the  plant  into  the  "West  Indies  have  also 
proved  unsuccessful. 

Structiral  riBER. — The  fiber  is  Avhitc  and  lustrous,  easily  separated,  stiff  and 
very  tenacious,  and  also  very  light,  which  is  a  great  advantage  when  the  fiber  is 
used  for  the  rigging  and  running  ropes  of  ships.  Viewed  microscopically  the  bun- 
dles of  fibers  are  A'ery  large,  but  are  readily  separated  into  smooth  fibers  of  even 
diameter  after  the  alkaline  bath.  The  central  cavity  is  large  and  very  apparent, 
the  walls  being  of  uniform  thickness.  The  ends  grow  slender  gradually  and  regu- 
larly. The  detached  sections  (cross  sections)  appear  irregularly  round  or  oval  in 
shape,  and  the  central  cavity  is  very  open  and  prominent.  As  to  tenacity,  compared 
with  English  hemp,  it  stands  as  follows:  A  rope  of  manila  3J  inches  in  circumfer- 
ence and  2  fathoms  long  stood  a  strain  of  4,669  pounds  before  giving  way,  while  a 
similar  rope  of  English  hemp  broke  with  3,885  pounds.  A  second  test  of  ropti  If 
inches  in  circumference,  and  the  same  length,  gave  1,490  pounds  for  the  manila  and 
1,184  pounds  for  the  English  hemp. 

A  large  and  valuable  collection  of  abaca  or  manila  hemp  was  received  at  the 
Phil.  Int.  Exh.,  1876,  comprising  a  large  portion  of  the  fiber  exhibit  of  the  Philij)- 
pine  Isles.  The  (il)er  is  exhibited  in  difi'erent  stages,  as  well  as  samples  of  abaca 
cloth  and  the  manufactures  from  it.  Other  samples  were  received  from  the  Queens- 
land exhibit,  prepared  by  Alexander  McPherson,  as  well  as  from  the  other  interna- 
tional exhibitions  held  since  that  time. 

"While  the  hemp  is  called  ahaca  by  the  natives  of  the  Philippine  Isles,  other  names 
are  given  to  the  different  qualities  of  fiber,  as  handala,  which  appears  to  be  the 
harder  and  stronger  outer  fiber,  which  is  used  for  cordage.  The  finer  fibers  of 
the  inner  layer  are  called  lujns,  and  are  employed  in  weaving  delicate  fabrics,  Avhile 
the  intermediate  layers  furnish  the  anpo:,  which  enters  into  the  manufacture  of  the 
web  cloths  and  gauzes.  The  natives  distinguish  the  several  varieties  of  the  plant 
as  follows:  Ahacn  hrara,  or  the  wild  ahaca,  called  by  the  Bicoles  ayotai;  the  moun- 
tain ahaca,  which  is  used  for  making  ropes,  called  agotar/  and  amotjiiid;  the  xagnfj 
of  the  Bisayas;  the  laqiiiH  of  the  Bisayas,  by  whom  the  fibers  of  the  original  ahaca 
are  called  lamot. 

Uses  of  the  Fiber. — The  manufacture  of  manila  hemp  in  this  country  is  for  the 
most  part  confined  to  binding  twine  and  cordage,  ilr.  Joseph  Chisholm,  a  veteran 
manufacturer  of  Salem,  Mass.,  states  that  manila  hemp  began  to  be  used  exten- 
sively in  this  country,  in  Salein  and  Bostou,  in  1824  to  1827.  In  1820  a  sample  was 
brought  to  the  first-mentioned  city  by  John  White,  a  lieutenant  in  the  United  States 
Navy,  on  the  brig  Klicaheth. 

The  fiber  is  imported  in  bales  of  270  pounds,  costing  at  present  about  4i  cents  per 
pound;  January,  1890,  7^  cents  per  pound.  One  New  York  manufactory  used  in 
1879  41,366,710  pounds  of  this  fiber,  equivalent  to  153,173  bales.  While  American- 
manufactured  manila  goes  into  the  rigging  of  vessels  or  is  used  on  shipboard,  it  also 
finds  use  for  every  purpose  for  which  rope  is  employed.  In  regard  to  the  capability 
of  the  ahaca  for  the  manufacture  of  fine  fabrics,  M.  Perrouttel,  a  French  botanist,  in 
the  Anuales  Maritimes  et  Coloniales  du  France,  states  that  from  the  finer  sorts  of  the 
fiber  tissues  or  muslins  are  made  of  great  beauty,  which  are  very  dear,  even  in  Manila. 
He  says:  I  had  a  number  of  shirts  made  from  the  muslin,  which  lasted  me  a  very 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOCxUE.  240 

long  time,  autl  were  cool  mikI  agreeable  in  the  use.  IJiit  it  is  ospet-ially  in  Franco 
that  tissues  of  this  material  are  best  made  and  of  the  greatest  beauty.  They  receive 
all  colors  with  equal  perfection.  Yells,  crapes,  neckerchiefs,  robes,  and  women's 
bats — all  of  great  beauty  and  bigb  cost,  as  well  as  of  wonderful  durability — are 
among  the  manufactures  from  the  fiber  of  ahaca.  Besides  these  are  Aarious  articles 
of  men's  wear,  such  as  shirts,  vests,  pantaloons,  etc. 

CuLTiv.vTiox. — The  cultivation  of  the  plant  is  simple.  In  Alb.-.'y  and  Camarines 
the  finest  growth  is  obtained  on  tbe  slopes  of  the  volcanic  mountains,  in  open  glades 
of  tlie  forest,  wliere  shade  falls  from  the  neighboring  trees.  On  exposed  level  land 
tbe  plants  do  not  thrive  so  well,  and  in  marshy  ground  not  at  all.  The  necessary 
conditions  seem  to  be  shade  and  abundant  moisture,  with  good  drainage.  Too  rich 
a  soil  tends  to  jiroduce  luxuriant  leaves  with  a  diminution  of  tiber.  In  laying  out  a 
new  plantation  use  is  generally  made  of  the  young  shoots,  which  very  qiiickly  throw 
up  suckers  from  the  roots.  In  favorable  situations  10  feet  is  the  usual  distance 
between  the  plants;  in  poor  soil,  6  feet.  During  the  first  season  weeds  and  under- 
growth must  be  kept  down ;  afterwards  the  vitality  of  the  plants  serves  to  exter- 
minate other  growths.  The  forest  shade  also  is  no  longer  necessary,  the  leaves  pro- 
tecting the  buds  from  the  sun.  In  excei)tional  instances  the  plants  are  raised  from 
seed.  The  ripe  (but  not  overripe)  fruit  is  cut  otf  and  dried.  Two  days  before  sow- 
ing the  kernels  are  removed  and  steeped  in  water  over  night.  Next  day  they  are 
dried  in  a  shady  place,  and  on  the  following  day  are  sown  in  holes  1  inch  deep  in 
fresh,  unbroken,  and  well-shaded  forest  land,  allowing  6  inches  between  the  plants 
and  between  the  rows.  After  a  year,  the  seedlings,  then  about  2  feet  high,  are 
planted  out  and  tended  in  the  same  way  as  suckers,  care  being  taken  to  keep  the 
soil  heaped  up  around  the  stem.  The  plants  raised  from  suckers  require  four  years 
before  producing  fiber  of  any  value;  those  raised  from  year-old  seedlings  need  at 
least  two  years.     (Spon's  Enc). 

Extracting  the  Fiber. — The  ahica  is  cut  when  2  to  4  years  old,  just  before  its 
flowering  or  fructification  is  likely  to  appear.  If  cut  earlier,  the  fibers  are  said  to 
be  shorter  but  finer.  It  is  cut  near  the  roots,  and  the  leaA-es  cut  oft"  just  below  their 
expansion.  It  is  then  slit  open  longitudinally  and  the  central  peduncle  separated 
from  the  sheathing  layers  of  fibers,  which,  in  short,  are  the  petioles  of  the  leaves. 

The  iibrous  coats,  when  stripped  otf,  are  left  for  a  day  or  two  in  the  shade  to  dry, 
and  are  then  divided  lengthwise  into  strips  3  inches  wide.  They  are  then  scraped 
with  an  instrument  made  of  bamboo  until  only  the  fibers  remain.  When  sulficiently 
scraped,  tlie  bundles  of  fibers  may  be  shaken  into  separate  threads,  after  which  they 
are  sometimes  v.-ashed.  then  dried  and  picked,  the  finest  being  separated  by  women, 
with  great  dexterity.  After  the  fiber  has  been  cleaned  in  this  manner,  it  is  ready  for 
the  manufacture  of  cordage  and  for  all  purposes  where  a  coarse  fiber  is  employed. 
The  fine  fiber,  however,  which  is  to  be  used  for  weaving,  undergoes  a  still  further 
operation  of  beating,  which  is  performed  with  a  wooden  mallet,  which  renders  the 
fiber  soft  and  pliable,  it  having  first  been  made  up  into  bundles.  The  separate  fila- 
ments are  then  fastened  together  at  their  ends  by  gumming,  it  is  wound  into  balls,  and 
is  then  ready  for  the  loom.  Sometimes  it  is  dressed  like  flax,  on  a  kind  of  hackle, 
and  afterwards  washed  many  times  in  running  water  until  perfectly  free  from  all 
extraneous  matter,  after  which  it  is  hung  over  poles  or  ropes  to  dry.  Two  men  will 
cut  and  scrape  about  2.">  pounds  of  the  fiber  in  a  day,  the  man  that  cuts  the  trees 
transporting  them,  stripping  the  layers,  and  cleaning  the  scraped  fiber,  though  it  is 
thought  this  is  above  the  average.  "From  1.50  to  200  trees  are  required  to  ])roduce 
1  picul,  or  140  pounds  of  fiber,  or  3,200  trees  for  a  ton  of  2,240  j^ounds."  Thus  an 
Indian  prejjares  only  about  12  pounds  of  fiber  per  day,  for  which  he  receives  his  half 
share,  18  cents,  which  is  the  value  of  6  pounds  of  the  hemp,  "yet  this  insignificant 
pittance  suffices  for  the  wants  of  himself  and  family."  Spon  states  that  a  ])]antation 
of  mature  shrubs  will  yield  about  30  hundredweight  of  fiber  per  acre  annually.  For 
further  information  relating  to  the  fiber  of  this  and  other  species  of  plantains  and 
bananas,  see  summary  in  the  Kew  Bulletin  for  August,  1894,  previously  referred  to. 


250         USEFUL  FIBER  PLANTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 

Musk  mallcw  (see  ITihiscits  abcbno.sclm.s). 
iVIusk  ochra.     Hibi.scits  nioncheutos. 
Nai  (Pers.).     See  Bamhusa  arundinavea. 
Naha  (Ceyl.).     See  Lasiosiphon  criocephaliis. 
Nali  and  Nalela  (Intl.).     IlibLsciis  canndbinns. 
Nalika  (Hijid.).     Hibiscus  vannabinus. 
Nalita  pat  (Ind.).     See  Corchorns. 
Nangka  (Java).     AriocarpKS. 
Nangsi  (Java).     Boehmeria. 
Nanat  (Buvm.).     Annnax  saiiva. 
Nannorhops  ritchieana. 

Endogeii.  ralinii .  Stemless  gregarious  sbrub. 
ludia  aiitl  portions  of  Asia,  where  the  phint  is  about  11  feet  high.  Dr.  Watt  iiieu- 
tions  that  uiattings,  fans,  baskets,  hats,  ami  slioes  or  sandals  are  made  from  the 
leaves  and  leaf  stalks.  It  \va8  once  used  as  a  material  for  a  rope  bridge  across  the 
Jhelum,  in  place  of  miinj  (Sacchanim),  but  ])roved  an  inferior  sulistitute.  "Scurf 
from  the  bases  of  the  leaves  (surface  fiber)  is  used  as  tinder  for  matchlocks." 

Nape  (Taliiti).     Cocas  nucifern. 

Nar  (Ind.)=Fragrant. 

Nara-woel  (Ceyl.).     Nararelia. 

Narainganji  jute  ( see  ( 'ordi  or  us ) . 

Naravali  and  Narvilli  (liid.).     See  Cordia. 

Naravelia  zeylanica. 

Exogen.     lUinunctilacea . 

Ascandent  shrub  of  India,  Ceylon,  and  otherregious,  the  stems  of  which  are  roughly 
twisted  into  useful  ropes. 

Narel,  naryal,  etc.  (Ind.).     Cocos  nucifera. 

The  Die.  Ec.  Prod.  Ind.  gives  over  100  vernacular  names  of  the  cocoanut,  among 
which  are  ndriel  (Hind.);  ndrilcd  (Beng.);  naliyer  and  naryal  (Guj.);  naril,  naural 
(Bomb.);  ndralmddandinnhadiMnT.);  narikadam  (Tel.)  \  narjil  (Avah.);  nargil  CPevs.); 
nur  (Mysore) ;  ndri-kera  (Sans.) ;  etc. ;  others  are  formed  from  totally  different  roots. 

Narnuli  (Ind.).     See  Cordia  angnsti folia. 

Neigella  cloth.     Fabric  from  sunn  liemp,  Crotalaria  Jitncca. 

Nelumbium  speciosum.     The  Sacred  Lotus. 

This  aquatic  herb,  with  rosy,  red,  or  white  flowers,  abounds  in  Africa  and  Asia. 
It  Is  found  in  all  parts  of  India. 

Bast  Fiher. — The  long  stalks  of  the  lotus  yield  a  sort  of  yellowish-white  fiber, 
which  is  used  principally  for  the  wicks  of  sacred  lamps  in  Hiiidi'i  temples;  and  the 
Hindu  doctors  are  of  the  opinion  that  the  cloth  prej>ared  from  this  fiber  acts  medic- 
inally as  a  febrifuge.     (Die.  Ec.  Prod.  Ind.,  Vol.  V.) 

Nepal  paper  plant.     Daphne  cannabina. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUEc  251 

Nepenthes  distillatoria.     riTCiiKR  Plant. 

Exogeu.     Xcpenthacea:     Evergreeu  xmdersbrub. 

There  are  iil)out  20  species  of  this  geims,  natives  of  Borneo,  Sumatra,  and  the 
Indian  Archipelago,  X.  dintillatoria  being  found  in  Ceylon.  The  pitchers  of  this 
species  are  partly  tilled  with  water  before  they  open ;  hence  the  specific  name.  In 
Ceylon  it  grows  in  great  abundance  in  wet  low  country,  particularly  where  the  Avet 
ground  has  a  sandy  bottom.     The  plants  trail  over  trees  and  bushes. 

Woody  Fiber. — This  is  called  ''one  of  the  most  useful  cordage  plants  of  Ceylon." 
The  trailing  stems  afford  cords  known  by  the  native  name  handura-wel.  "It  is  used 
very  largely  in  building  fences,  walls,  and  sometimes  in  fixing  the  rafters  of  native 
cottages.  In  the  manufacture  of  basltets  it  plays  an  important  part,  its  pliability 
rendering  it  extremely  easy  to  manipulate.'"     (Handbook  of  Ceylon,  W.  C.  E.,  1893.) 

Nesselhanf.     German  name  for  Urtica  spj). 
Nettle. 

The  nettles  may  be  separated  into  the  stinging  and  stingless  forms ;  Urtica  is  an 
example  of  the  former,  BoehmcrUi  of  the  latter.     Other  genera  of  nettles  are  Girard- 

inia,  Laportea,  Urera,  etc.     The  fever ,  Laportca  crenulata ;  gigantic  of 

Australia,  L.  (jhjas  ;  of  India,  Celtis  caucaska  or  aatitraUs ;  The  Nilghiri ,  (ilrard- 

inia  palmata  ;  the  stinging of  Europe,  Urtica  dioca  ;  of  the  United  .States,  U. 

grcuilis ;    the  stingless  ,   common  name  of  the  China  grass  and  ramie  plants, 

Boelimeria  nivea  and  teiiacissima. 

New  Orleans  moss  (see  Tillandsia). 
Ne^w  Zealand  flax  (see  Phormium  tenax). 
Neyanda  fiber  (Ceyl.).     See  Sansevieria  guineensis. 
Ngutunui  (ISTew  Zea.).     See  Fhormium. 
Nidularium  (see  Karatas). 
Niggi  (Ind.).     Daphne  cannabina. 
Nilghiri  nettle  (see  Glrardinia  palmata). 
Nin  (Hawaii).     Cocos  nucifera. 
Nipa  fruticans.     The  Nipah  Palm. 

Eudogen.     I'almw.  . 

Portions  of  India  and  the  Andaman  Islands,  in  the  river  estuaries  and  tide  lands. 
Dr.  Watt  states  that  the  leaves  are  used  for  thatching  houses  and  for  mattings. 
Hats  and  cigar  cases  are  made  of  the  fronds.  The  palm  has  other  economic  uses,  as 
for  food,  spirits,  etc.  Cigarette  wrappers  are  made  of  the  leaves,  and  commonly 
used  in  Malacca. 

Nipah  palm  (see  the  preceding). 
Niyanda  (Ceyl.).     See  Sansevieria  guineensis. 
Noix  d'Areca  (see  Areca  catechu.) 
Nolina  spp. 

The  plants  of  this  genus  resemble  those  o{  Dasi/Urion,  the  leaves  being  long  and 
narrow,  and  finely  serrated  on  the  edges.  They  aliound  in  the  Southwestern  United 
States  where  the  Yuccas  are  found  most  common. 

Structural  Fiber. — ''X.  terana,  X.  lindheimerlana,  and  X.  microcarpa,  of  the  South- 
west, all  have  abundant  narrow  leaves,  strong  and  flexible,  much  used  by  Mexicans 


252 


USEFUL  FIBER  PLANTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


for  thatching,  hasketry,  mattiug,  and  brooms;  I  <lo  not  know  that  the  separated 
fiber  hasevcr  ))eeu  examiued"  (Dr.  llavard).  In  the  Dejiartnient  collection  the  genns 
is  represented  1>y  a  single  species,  N.  microcarpa,  the  leaven  being  verj^  slender  and 
fibrous. 


See  Anona  reticulata. 
Sec  Stercxlia  rillosa. 


Nona  (Beng. 
Oadal  (Iiid.). 
Ochroma  lagopus.     Corkwood  Tree. 

Exogeu.     SterculiaccAV.     Tree,  40  feet. 
West  Indies,  Central  and  South  America.     Is  known  as  liaha  in  Spanish-speaking 
countries.     The  soft,  spongy  wood  of  this  species  is  used  in  .lamaica  as  a  substitute 

for  corks,  and  as  lloats  for  fish- 
ing nets. 

Surface  Fiheu. — The  fruit, 
or  seed  pod,  whicb  is  about  a 
foot  in  length,  contains  a  A'ege- 
table  silk,  or  silk  cotton,  that 
may  be  used  in  stuffing  pil- 
lows and  the  like.  Five  speci- 
mens of  this  substance  were 
exhibited  in  the  Venezuelan 
and  Costa  Rican  courts,  W.  C. 
E.,  1893.  The  fiber  is  an  ocher 
red  in  color,  is  very  coarse  and 
of  little  strength,  though  it 
might,  if  easily  obtained,  be 
useful  for  mattings  and  cord- 
age reiiuiring  little  strain. 

Ocimum    basilicum. 
SwiiKT  Basil. 

A  common  herb  of  India, 
grown  for  its  seeds.  "  It  is  cul- 
tivated to  a  small  extent  in  the 
western  portion  of  the  Hoogiily 
district  on  account  of  the  strong 
fiber  it  yields  for  ro])e  mak- 
ing." (Spon.)  Doubted  by  Dr, 
Watt. 

Ocotea  sieberi. 

A  genus  of  Lauracew,  chiefly 
large  trees  inhabiting  tropical 
America.  This  species,  former- 
ly Ori'odaphnc  cerniia,  is  found  in  Mexico  and  portions  of  South  America.  In  Trini- 
dad it  is  known  as  Hois  ceip.  "The  iiber  is  very  strong,  stands  water  well,  and 
would  be  good  for  twine  making.  A  tree  will  produce  2  to  ;{  pounds  of  fiber  4  to  G 
feet  long."     {St.  mil.) 

Odina  ^vodier. 

A  species  o(  Aiiacardiacew,  a  tree  40  to  50  feet,  which  grows  in  the  hotter  jjortions 
of  India.     The  bark  yields  a  coarse  cordage  fiber. 
* Sjiechncn. — ]>ot.  Mus.  Harv.  Univ. 


Fig.  1 


-The  Jiacciibii,  (Kiiuciiipits  hacaba. 


Oelta  kamal  (Iiid.).     See  Ahroma  augusta. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE. 


253 


OSnocarpus  bacaba.     The  Turu  Palm,  or  Baccaba. 

There  are  six  or  se\en  8i)ecie8  of  this  gcuus  of  Brazilian  palms,  the  plants  ahouud- 
iny  chielly  on  the  banks  of  the  Amazon  and  Orinoco  rivers.  They  are  lofty  trees, 
with  smooth,  straight  stems,  crowned  witli  a  cluster  of  pinnate  leaves.  The  above 
species  yields  a  Piassaba-like  fiber.  In  some  i^arts  of  British  Guiana,  where  the  tree 
is  known  as  the  Turu  palm,  the  leaves  are  used  for  thatching.  (E.  hataua  is  found  in 
the  State  of  Para,  where  it  is  said  '"to  furnish  the  strongest  ropes  for  the  navy."' 
(E.  distichus  is  an  allied  species,  mentioned  by  Orton,  and  Kitlerpe  {(KiiDcdrpns)  acu- 
minata is  the  Anouillo  of  Costa  Rica. 
Several  of  the  species  yield  a  color- 
less oil,  wliich  is  nsed  to  adulterate 
sweet  oil  in  Para.  See  figs.  86  and  87. 

Oetan  (Malay)  =  wild,  or  per 
taining  to  forests. 

Oil  Palm  of  Africa.      El  wis 
guineensis. 

Oi-moi  (Cliiua).      Jute.      See 
CorchorUs. 

Oiselle    hemp  (see  Hihucus 
sabdariffa). 

Okra  and  Okrho  (see  Hibiscus 
esctdentK.s). 

Olona  fiber   (Hawaii).      See 
Toiichardia. 

Op-nai   (Burin.).      Strcblus 
asper. 

Opuhe  (Hawaii),     See  Urera 
sandivicensis, 

Opuntiaspp.  Prickly  Pear. 

The  prickly  pears  form  a  large 
genus,  confined  to  the  American 
continent,  though  distributed  to 
manj'  other  countries.  O.  iwlijcan- 
tha  is  the  species  most  common  in 
western  United  States,  while  0.  linmifnsa  is  found  in  Florida.  O.  dUlenii,  a  South 
American  species,  has  been  noted  as  a  possible  fil)er  i)lant  in  India,  but  "the  sam- 
ples of  fiber  shown  at  the  Colonial  and  Indian  exhibitions  were  pronounced  worthless 
by  the  paper  makers  who  examined  them."  {Dr.  Watt.)  The  experience  of  the  writer 
with  the  pricklj' pear  cactus  in  Florida  leads  to  the  suggestion  that  the  mere  gather- 
ing of  the  material  would  be  a  costly  operation. 

Oreodoxa  regia.    Eoyal  Palm. 

Fndogen.     Palma;.     A  noble  palm,  GO  to  90  feet. 

The  magnificent  palm  is  met  with  in  certain  localities  in  Florida,  chiefly  "Little 
and  Big  I'alm  Hummocks,"  1.5  and  25  miles  east  of  Cape  Romano,  and  also  on  Elliott's 
Key.  Grows  in  the  West  Indies,  where  it  is  known  as  Palma  Real.  The  genus 
Oreodoxa  includes  six  species  of  graceful  palms  indigenous  to  tropical  America. 

Stkucturax.  Fibek. — Not  used  in  Florida  for  any  purjiose;  (juite  rare.     Dr.  Parry, 


^^iiif^tX/t*^* 


The  Patdwa,  CEnoearpim  bataita. 
old  trt-fs. 


Touug  and 


254  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

who  hrought  the  museum  specimens  from  Santo  Domingo,  says  the  large  sheaths  of 
the  leaves  supply  material  for  thatching  and  lining  the  sides  of  houses.  It  is  also 
used  for  lloor  matting  and  coarse  Itaskets.  The  external  ring  of  hard  woody  liljers 
on  the  main  stem  is  i>re8sed  out  into  thin  sheathing  boards.  The  fruit  of  the  species 
is  in  common  nse  on  the  island  for  feeding  hogs  and  cattle.  Dr.  Smith,  in  the  Treas- 
ury of  Botany,  mentions  0.  ohracm,  the  West  Indian  cabbage  palm,  which  some- 
times attains  a  height  of  100  feet.  The  semicylindrical  portion  of  the  leaf  stalks  are 
formed  into  cradles  for  negro  children,  and  the  inside  skin  peeled  off  while  green 
produces  a  kind  of  vellum,  which  will  take  ink. 

Orme  d'Amerique  (Jam.).     See  Guazuma. 

Orthanthera  viminea. 

Exogen.  Aselepiadacew.  A  shrub. 
This  plant,  belonging  to  the  milk-weed  fannly,  grows  near  the  foot  of  the  Hima- 
layan Mountains,  its  long,  slender,  leafless,  wand-like  stems,  10  feet  or  more  in  length, 
furnishing  a  bast  fiber  of  remarkable  tenacity,  suitable  for  rope  making.  "In  Sind 
the  uusteeped  stalks  are  made  into  ropes  for  Persian  wheels,  a  iiur]>()se  for  which 
they  are  admirably  adapted  as  they  do  not  rot  readily  Irom  moisture."    {Dr.   Watt.) 

Ortie  blanch,  etc,  (see  Boehmcria  iiirea). 
Oryza  sativa.     Common  Kice. 

Endogen.     Craminea',     A  grass. 

The  rice  plant  of  commerce  is  supposed  to  be  of  Asiatic  origin,  though  it  is  said  to 
have  been  found,  apparently  in  a  wild  state,  in  Soutli  America,  As  is  well  known, 
rice  is  the  principal  food  of  the  laboring  classes  of  China,  India,  and  the  Indian 
Archipelago,  and  forms  the  entire  food  of  many  people.  As  it  is  a  marsh  plant,  it 
requires  flooding  with  water,  when  under  cultivation,  to  produce  the  best  results. 
In  this  country  it  is  grown  as  a  food  plant,  chiefly  in  the  lower  pine  belt,  extending 
from  80  to  100  miles  inland  from  the  coast,  from  Virginia  down  along  the  Atlantic 
and  Gulf  coasts.  "Tlie  plant  was  proliably  introduced  into  the  United  States  about 
the  year  1693,  by  Thomas  Smith.  It  is  said  to  have  been  grown  successfully  in  Eng- 
land, Germany,  and  even  in  the  colder  parts  of  Siberia.''    (Prof.  Milton  TVliiiiicy.) 

FiHEii. — Its  straw  is  chiefly  used  as  a  fiber  product  in  Eastern  countries.  In  the 
Japan  exhibit,  W.  C.  E.,  1893,  there  was  a  very  full  series  of  samples  of  rice  straw, 
rice-straw  pulp  and  paper,  and  rice-straw  plait,  the  latter  made  by  inmates  of  the 
prison  at  Yamaguchi.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  this  l)y-product  in  .Japan  amounts 
to  not  less  than  15,270,000  tons  annually.  It  is  utilized  in  various  ways,  such  as  in 
bags  for  keeping  and  transporting  cereals,  root  crop.s,  etc.,  for  nuiking  various  kinds 
of  ropes  and  cordage,  mats,  ''  Mino"  or  rain  coats,  sandals  known  as  " Zori"  and 
"TVaraji,"  thatching  roofs,  making  summer  hats  and  other  straw  work.  It  is  also 
largely  used  both  as  fodder  and  litter  for  horses  and  cattle. 

"It  has  recently  been  chiefly  consumed  in  manufacturing  straw  pulp,  which, 
mixed  with  other  kinds  of  fibers,  is  largely  used  for  manufacturing  i)rinting  paper. 
Until  a  few  years  ago,  nearly  all  printing  paper  used  for  newspapers,  journals,  etc., 
was  imported  from  foreign  countries,  but  at  present  almost  all  demands  are  sup- 
plied with  the  homcnuule  article,  and  there  is  every  ho])e  that  in  future,  it  may  be 
exported  to  foreign  countries,  on  account  of  its  clieajiness  and  the  case  of  obtaining 
the  materials."     Str.'iw  plait  is  also  made  in  .Tapan  f)om  l)arley  straw  (see  Hordrnm). 

Rice  straw  does  not  appear  to  be  used  iu  India,  and  little  progress  has  been  made 
toward  its  employment  for  any  purpose  in  that  country.  Indeed,  Dr.  Watt  states 
that  the  straw  and  roots  are  too  valuable  to  the  cultivators  to  offer  for  sale,  as  they 
are  generally  left  to  enrich  the  soil  for  the  next  crop. 

Osiers  (see  Salix). 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  255 

Oteri  (New  Guiu.).     Coeos  micifcra. 
Oulemari  (Fr.  (xuiau.).     See  Covratori. 
Ovao  (Taliiti).     Wilcstroemia  fcetida. 
Ozoniuni  auricomum  (see  under  Fames). 
Paat,  and  Pat  (Iiid.).     Jute.     See  CorcJiorus. 
Fachira  alba. 

This  plant  is  the  best  known  representative  of  a  troiiical  American  genus  of  Sier- 
cuViacen',  allied  to  Adansoiiia,  the  baobab  tree  of  Africa.  The  fniit  is  an  oval,  woody 
single-celled  capsule,  with  a  number  of  divisions  and  containing  numerous  seeds, 
covered  more  or  less  with  down  or  seed  hairs,  forming  a  head  of  vegetable  wool. 

FiHKR. — These  plants  yield  both  bast  and  surface  libers,  the  former  in  the  bark, 
the  latter  in  their  seed  Aessels.  P.  alba  is  a  Xew  Granada  species  that  is  said  to 
"furnish  the  entire  country  watli  cordage,  both  strong  and  durable." 

Among  other  species  may  be  mentioned  P.  harrigon,  Panama,  the  seed  hairs  of 
which  are  used  to  stuff  pillows  and  cushions.  P.  insigvis  is  a  small  West  Indian  form 
mentioned  as  a  fiber  plant  in  the  Flax  and  Hemp  Commission  list.  Savorgnan  enu- 
merates P.  aquatica  from  Martinique.  "Fiber  from  the  bark  used  for  fishing  nets 
and  ship  cables,  and  wadding  is  made  from  the  down  of  the  seeds." 

The  Mexican  fiber  known  as  Majagua  clavellina  is  said  by  Dr.  Ernst  to  be  produced 
from  P.  fastuosa,  referred  to  by  Oliva  in  La  Naturaleza,  v.  89,  as  Carolinea  fastuosa. 
The  genus  Carolinea  was  erected  by  the  younger  Linu;eus,  but,  l)y  the  law  of  jiriority, 
botanists  usually  accept  Pachira. 

Pachyrhizus  angulatus.     Short-Podded  Yam  Bean. 

This  valuable  economic  plant  is  widely  cultivated  in  the  Tropics  of  both  hemi- 
spheres, and  yields  tuberous  edible  roots  as  well  as  pods.  Like  many  other  sjiecies 
of  the  Leguminosi?,  its  stems  are  fibrous.  The  plant  is  known  on  the  Fiji  Islands  as 
Yaka  or  Wayalca,  and  from  its  twining  stems  a  tough  fiber  is  produced  that  is  used 
in  making  fishing  nets.     See  Kew  Bull.,  May,  1889.     Compare  DoJichos  trUobus. 

Facoa  (Is.  Reunion).     Pandanus  utilis. 
Pcederia  fcetida. 

An  Indian  climbing  plant,  of  the  Bubiacen',  which  has  recently  attracted  considera- 
ble attention,  as  it  yields  a  strong  flexible  fiT)er,  silk-like  in  appearance.  Indian 
name,  Bedolee  siitta. 

The  plant  could  doubtless  be  cultivated;  moreover  the  supply  of  wild  plants 
would  not  readily  he  exhausted,  as  on  the  plains,  where  they  thrive  best,  the  grass 
is  burned  down  aunually,  and,  during  the  rains,  the  roots  throw  up  fresh  shoots.  The 
proper  time  for  collecting  the  plant  is  the  cold  or  dry  season ;  during  the  rains  the 
fiber  comes  off"  dirty  and  discolored.  The  stem  is  divided  into  sections,  a  joint  occur- 
ring at  every  12  to  21  inches.  The  cut  stems,  while  still  greeu,  are  divided  at  the 
joints,  and  the  fiber  is  removed  in  the  following  way:  The  operator  takes  each  sec- 
tion in  both  hands,  and  twists  it  as  much  as  possible,  to  disengage  the  fibers,  having 
first  carefully  stripped  oft' all  the  bark  of  the  stem.  He  then  disengages  at  one  end 
enough  of  the  fiber  to  take  hold  of,  and  gradually  strips  it  entirely  away.  The  proc- 
ess would  be  too  slow,  laborious,  and  costly  for  commercial  purposes.  Machinery 
has  not  yet  been  applied  to  it.  Probabljr  a  pair  of  crushing  rollers  and  a  simple 
scutching  apparatus  would  snfiioe.     (Spon.) 

Paglia  di  capelli  (It.)  (Straw-plait).     See  Triticum. 

Faina  (Braz.)  =  Silk  Cotton.     See  Bombax  and  Eriodendron, 


25G  USEFUL    FIBER   PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

Palm  fiber. 

The  princii)<'il  palms  from  which  fibt.T,  or  fil)rous  material,  has  heeu  obtained  are 

as  follows:   Assai  ,  Euterpe  editlis;    Bamboo  ,  Rapliia   rinifera ;    Betel- 

uut ,  Areca  catechu  ;  Booba {see  Iriartea) ;  Broom ,  AitaJea  funif- 

cra  and  Thrinax  argetitca  ;  Bnsu ,  Mauicaria  saccifera;  Cabbage ,  Euteipe 

oleracea;  Cabbage  of  Australia,  Livistona  anstralis ;  Carana  ,  Maiiritia 

carana;    Carnauba,  or  Brazilian  wax  ,    Copernicia  cerifera;    Catechu   , 

A>'cca  catechu;  Chusan ,  Trachycarpus  fortunei ;  Cocoauut ,   Vocoh  nucif- 

cra;  Cokerite,  or  Kokerite ,  Maximiliana  regia;  Coquito ,  Juhaa  specta- 

hilis;  Curua  ,  Attalea  spectaMViH ;  Date ,  I'hanix  dactijlifera;  Doom,  or 

Doum    ,    Hypliane    thcbaica;      Double    cocoauut    ,    Lodoicea    calliiiyge; 

Dragon's  Blood ,  Dracana  draco ;  Fan ,  ChamaTops  humUis,  (see  also  Pal- 
metto); Gebang ,  Corypha  gehanga ;  Goumti,  or  Gomuto ,  Arenga  saccha- 

rifera;   Hemp .  or  Indian  ,    Trachycarpus  cxcelsus ;   Eta,  or  Ita  , 

Mauriiia  flexuosa ;  In  ,  Astrocaryum  acaule;  Ivory  ;— ,  Phylelephas  macro- 

carpa;     Jamaica   ,    Sabal   hiaclhuriiiaua ;    Jara  ,    Leopoldinia  j^'ilclira; 

Jnpati ,  Eaphia  tadigera;   Macaw  and  Great  Macaw  ,  Acrocomia  laaio- 

sjiaiJia  ai\d  A.  sclei'ocarpa  ;  Miriti ,  Mauriiia  flexuosa  ;  Murumurii ,  Astro- 

caryuvi  mururmirii ;  Nipah  ,  Xipa  frnticans ;   Oil  ,  Elwis  gnineeusis ;  Pal- 
metto        (see    Sabal    and     Serenoa) ;     Palmyra    ,    Borassua    flaheUifer; 

Pashiiiba,  or  Paxiuba ,  Iriartea  exorrliiza;  Bataila ,  (Enocarpus ;  Peach 

,  Guilielma  apecioaa;  Piassaba ,  Attalea  fuuifera  and  Leopoldinia ptiassaha 

(see  Piassaba  in  Catal.) ;  Pinang ,  Areca  catechu;  Raffia ,  Baphia  ruffia; 

Rattan ,  Calamus  rotaug,  C.  rudeuium,  and  other  species;  Royal ,  Orco- 

doxa  regia;    Sago  ,  Metroxylon  sagu  (see  also   Sago  in   Catalogue);   Silver 

thatch ,  Thritiax argentea ;  Talii)ot ,  Coryphanmhraciilifera ;  Thatch , 

Sabal  blaclburniana ;  Tecnma ,  Astrocaryum  iucuma;  Tucum ,  J.  rulgare; 

"Wiue  ,   Cocos  biityracea  aud  Caryota   urvns ;  Wine  ,   of  Para,   Mauritia 

vinifera ;  Zauora ,  Iriartea  exorrhiza. 

Palm  lily,  The  tall  (see  Cordyline  indivisa). 

Palma  real  (W.  Ind.).     See  Oreodo.ra  rcf/ia. 

Palmea  (Mex.)     Collective  name  for  the  Yucca  group. 

Palmet  (see  Prionium). 

Palmetto. 

The  saw ,  Sereuoa  serrulata ;  the  cabbage .  SahaJ  pahiidto  :  the  African, 

or  Grin  vegetal,  (liamccrops  humilis ;  royal,  Sabal  umhraculi/cra ;  silver 


top ,  Thrinax  argentea. 

Palmite  (Afr.).     See  Prionium. 

Palmyra  bass  fiber,  and  Palmyra  palm  (see  liornssus  flahellifcr). 

Palo  de  Balso  (Peru).     See  Ochroma. 

Palungoo  (Tarn.).     Hibiscus  cannahinus. 

Pameta.     Florida  vernacular  for  Palmetto. 

Pampas  grass  (see  Gynerium). 

Pandanus  utilis,  et  sp.  div. 

The  genus  Pandauus,  or  screw  pines,  embraces  some  30  species  or  more,  which 
abound  on  the  islands  oi"  the  Indian  Archipelago,  the  Mascarene  Islands,  India,  China, 
etc.,  and  arc  distributed  to  other  countries.     In  the  economic  literature  of  American 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  257 

fiber  plants  I  liud  no  reference  to  the  uses  of  these  phints  for  fiher,  though  M.  I?er- 
nardin  j;ives  /'.  sjj/ra/i's  as  a  Jamaiean  species,  f^crew  pines,  however,  are  common  in 
conservatories. 

Structural  Fiuer. — P.  ntilis,  known  in  Mauritius  as  tlio  Yacona,  or  Bacona,  is 
cultivated  for  the  sake  of  its  leaves,  which  are  made  into  sacks  for  coftee,  sugar, 
and  grain.  The  leaves  are  not  cut  till  the  thir<l  year,  and  are  regularly  cropped 
every  second  year  afterwards.  A  plant  will  yield  leaves  enough  for  two  large  hags. 
The  leaves  are  prepared  as  soon  as  taken  from  the  tree;  the  operation  consisting 
merely  in  splitting  the  leaves  into  fillets,  which  are  three-fourths  to  1  inch  broad  at 
the  base,  but  taper  to  a  point.  They  are  3  to  4  feet  in  length.  "One  of  them  will 
support  the  weight  of  a  bag  of  sugar,  or  140  p(mnds,  without  breaking."  A  jiiant 
yields  material  for  two  sacks.  In  the  South  Sea  Islands  "the  leaves  are  also  made 
into  matting,  baskets,  hats,  and  thatch,  and  are  used  for  cordage  and  other  purposes. 
The  root  fibers  are  much  stronger  than  those  from  the  leaves,  and  are  occasionally 
used  for  making  cordage,  and  for  admixture  with  jute  in  gunny  bags."     (Sjion.) 

1'.  odoratissimus :  This  species  is  found  in  India,  the  Straits  Settlements,  China, 
Australia,  and  the  South  Sea  Islands,  known  as  the  Caldera  bush.  Some  of  its 
native  names  are  Cadlii,  Arab.;  Kadi,  Pers. ;  Kendu,  Bomlt. ;  Faiidaiig,  Malay;  Keyd 
and  Kciki-leija,  Beng. ;  IVaeia  leyiva,  Ceyl.,  etc.  Eegardiug  the  fibei',  Dr.  Watt 
states  that  the  leaves  are  composed  of  tough  longitudinal,  white,  glossy  fibers  which 
are  employed  for  covering  huts,  making  mattings,  cordage,  and  in  South  India  the 
larger  kinds  of  hunting  nets,  and  the  drag  ropes  of  fishing  nets.  The  roots  also 
are  fibrous  and  are  used  by  basket  makers  for  binding.  When  cut  into  lengths 
and  beaten  out  they  are  very  commonly  used  as  brushes'  for  painting  and  white- 
wa.^liing.  "It  is  possible  that  this  root  fiber  might  l)c  found  suitable  for  brush 
making  as  a  substitute  for  bristles,  a  form  of  fiber  which  is  now  in  great  demand." 
Both  roots  and  leaves  may  be  used  as  paper  stock.     (See  fig.  2,  PI.  IX.) 

The  Kew  Mus.  contains  specimens  from  several  species  of  Pandanus  found  in 
Eastern  countries  and  the  isles  of  the  Pacific.  P.  carivosus,  Fiji,  is  represented  by 
baskets,  fans,  mats,  etc.,  made  from  the  leaves.  The  fibrous  portions  of  the  dru^jes 
of  /'.  hram,  an  India  species,  are  combed  out  into  a  kind  of  brush  which  is  used 
for  removing  dust  from  the  feet.  P.  amarylUfoliiis,  Java,  supplies,  in  its  leaves, 
material  for  sleejiing  mats;  in  Ceylon  chair  mats  are  made  from  P.  hitmilis,  and  the 
leaves  of  P.  houUetii,  Siam,  are  made  into  other  forms  of  mats.  Other  species  fur- 
nish material  for  scrubl>ing  Itrushes  in  Burnuih,  and  a  native  dress  is  shown  from 
Polynesia  made  from  the  leaves  of  an  unnamed  species.  The  most  notable  species 
are  named  above 

Pangane  hemp.     See  Sansevieria  hirlcii. 

Pangara  (Ind.).     See  Erythrina  indica. 

Pani  grass,  or  Panni  (Pauj.)  (see  Andropoijon  squarrosm). 

Panicled  acacia  (see  Acacia  leucophUva). 

Panicuni  myurus.     Camelote. 

Endogen.     Graminciv.     A  grass. 

The  genus  Panicttm,  which  includes  many  of  the  fodder  grasses  .-ind  millets,  num- 
bers over  800  species,  some  of  which  are  well  known  in  the  United  States.  Some  of 
them  are  coarse  forms.  Their  common  names  are  legion.  They  are  not  fibrous  in  the 
sense  of  yielding  a  textile,  but  many  of  the  species  have  been  employed  by  natives 
in  the  manufacture  of  objects  of  domestic  economy. 

Panicum  mi/iino^  is  found  in  Venezuela,  known  as  Gamelote,  or,  more  properlj',  Came- 
lotc,  growing  in  extraordinary  abundance  on  all  the  plains  of  the  country.  The  fiber 
is  considered  a  useful  grass  for  paper  stock.  In  the  Venezuelan  Exhibition  of  1883, 
according  to  Dr.  Ernst,  specimens  of  the  grass  and  pulp  made  from  it  Avere  exhibited, 

12247— No.  9 17 


258 


USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 


and  it  was  proposed  to  utilize  the  product  of  tlie  vast  Canielote  lields  iu  paper  iiiau- 
iifacture.  "NVliilo  tlie.  ]iaper  made  from  this  grass  is  not  of  fine  <iuality,  it  is  strong 
and  suitable  for  wrai)iiiug  paper. 

A  grass  fiber  exhibited  in  the  ^lexican  Court,  W.  C  E.,  1893,  under  the  name  Zacala 
dc  Jlaiiati,  is  referred  by  Dr.  Ramirez  to  P.  rnts-aaUi  (i\g.  SS).  "Zflca^f  is  a  name  given 
to  various  speci.  s  of  Panicnm:  in  an  at  i  donbf  less  refers  to  its  growing  on  the  river  banks 

where  the  manatee  can  feed  upon 


it."      (Lruxt.)     The    species    is   a 
common  weed  iu  this  country. 

The  flowering  panicles  of  i'oHi- 
ciim  acarij'crum  (now  Thyxauohrua 
(((/yostix)  are  made  into  brooms, 
which  are  much  used  throughout 
portions  of  India  for  sweeping 
houses.  J'.  majiuiKin,  Guinea 
grass,  is  an  American  introduced 
rpecies,  the  fruiting  spikes  of 
which  are  used  for  brooms  in  the 
Seychelles,  etc.  See  also  rasjiahnn. 


Paper. 

The  value  of  a  paper  juaterial 
depends  largely,  next  to  supply, 
upon  the  i)ercentage  of  pure  cellu- 
lose it  contains.  Esparto  grass  is 
one  of  the  best  substances  ibr  paper 
because  of  the  high  ]»ercentag('  of 
line  iibrousor  cellular  tissue  which 
can  be  obtained  from  it.  Five 
grou])s  of  pajx'r  nuiterials  are 
recognized  in  this  work  :  1.  The 
spinning  libers — («)  in  the  form  of 
waste  Ironi  textile  industries,  or 
as  secon<l  ([ualities;  (h)  the  same 
iu  the  form  of  rags.  2.  The  soft 
liasts.  3.  Palm-leaf  fiber,  etc. 
•1.  The  grasses.  .">.  Woody  fiber,  or 
the  natural  wood  of  trees  reduced 
to  cellulose.  SceLinHm,(!ossyj)him, 
Corchorus,  Edgcirorthia,  Pronssonctia,  Serciioa,  Stipa,  Pamhiisa,  Zea,  and  the  (h-aminea; 
generally,  Pinus,  Pirca,  Abies,  Popidun,  and  other  genera  in  this  work.  See,  par- 
ticularly, Picea  manana,  under  which  statements  are  made  regarding  the  Avood  pulp 
industry. 

Paper,  Ancient  (sec  Cyperxs  papi/rtis). 

Paper  birch  (see  Betula). 

Paper  mulberry  (see  Bronssonctid  impyrifera). 

Papinjay  (see  Luffa  a'ffi/ptiaca). 


Fig.  88. — Barnyard  grass,  Panicum  crus-ijnlli. 


Papyrus,  of  the  ancients  (sec  ('upeyus  pupiirus;  — 
sxjriavus). 

Paritane-wha.    Xew  Zealand  flax  of  tlieliigli  regions. 

Paritiuni  elatunx  (see  Hibiscus  clatits). 


of  Sicily,  C. 


See  Fhormiiim. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  259 

Parkinsonia  aciileata.     Jerusalem  Thorn. 

Exogen.     Leguminosw.     Spiny  shrub. 
This  species  is  found  in  the  West  India  Islands;  introduced  into  all  tropical  coun- 
tries, and  in  the  hotter  regions  of  India  emjiloyed  as  a  hedge  plant.     Its  fiber  is 
white,  but  short  and  brittle.     JNIight  be  grown  as  a  i)aper  plant. 

Parrotia  jacqueniontiana. 

A  sliriib  of  the  llamamclidaayr,  ibund  in  northwest  Himalayan  district  of  India,  the 
strong  fibrous  twigs  of  which  are  "used  in  the  Pan) a b  for  binding  loads,  nuxking 
baskets,  and  very  largely  for  constructing  the  rope  or  twig  bridges  of  the  Himalayan 
rivers."     (Ih:  Wat}.) 

Parsid  (Bomb.).     See  Hardwickia  hinata. 
Paspalum  si)p. 

A  genus  of  grasses  which  includes  a  considerable  number  of  species  of  well-known 
])asture  grasses,  such  as  knot  grass,  Louisiana  grass,  purple  paspalum,  etc.  Like 
the  species  of  Panicum  previously  enumerated,  some  of  the  species  are  employed  iu 
industrial  economy  by  natives  iu  the  countries  where  tliey  grow.  Notable  examples 
are  the  wire  grass  of  Jamaica,  raspahim  fiUforme,  Avhich  lias  been  made  into  hal- 
ters, and  P.  rirgatiim,  which  supplies  a  rough  material  for  ropes  in  Antigua. 

Pat  (Ind.).    See  Corchorus.    The  word  in  Siug-halese  also  meaus  leaf. 

Pata  (Ceyl.).     Equivalent  to  fibrous  bark. 

Pati-kori  (Beug.).     See  SacehanDn  fimvum. 

Patsan  and  Pitwa  (N.W.  Piov.  lud.).     See  Hihisof.s  cannahinns. 

Patta-appele  (Ceyl.).      Urena  lobata. 

PauUinia  grandiflora. 

Belongs  to  the  Suintnhueiv.  The  representatives  of  the  genus  are  nearly  all  climb- 
ing shrubs  confined  to  tropical  America.  The  above  sjiecies  is  knowu  in  Peru  as  the 
Titriii,  and,  according  to  Dorca,  its  bark  is  used  for  bands,  tie  material,  etc.  The  seeds 
of  some  of  the  species  yield  an  active  i)rincipal  identical  with  theine  of  tea,  and  this 
is  employed  iu  a  beverage  as  a  nervous  stimulant. 

Paukpan  (Burm.),     See  ^Esehi/nonienc. 

Pavonia  .spinifex.     Escobadura  of  Argentina. 

This  genus  of  Malvavew  is  chiefly  confined  to  tropical  America,  though  a  few  spe- 
cies are  found  in  Asia.  They  are  small  shrubs.  Fiber  of  this  species  was  shown  in  the 
Argentine  Court,  AV.  C.  E.,  1893.  The  species  is  very  common  in  the  northern  half 
of  Argentina  .  P.  odoratn  and  /*.  zeylanica  are  Indian  species  (  West  I'ror.,  Lurm.  and 
Ceyl.)  and  "yield  fiber  of  excellent  quality."  "It  is,  if  anything,  of  a  finer  texture, 
softer,  and  whiti'r  than  Hibiscus,  and  stands  a  good  chance  of  coming  into  commercial 
use  as  a  substitute  for  Hibiscus,  and  even  jute."     (Dr.  Wait.) 

Paxiuba  (Braz.).     Socratca  c.rorrhiza.     See  Triartca. 

Paxiuba-miri  (Braz.).     IriarteUa  selUjcra.     See  Ir'uirtea. 

Pemm  (Yuc.).     Maya  name  for  Ceiha  pentaHdrct. 

Pendang  (Malay).     See  Fandanns. 

Pendha  (Ind.)  ^=  Rice  straw. 

Pengh-wai  jambi  (Java).     Cibotitun  harometz. 


260         USEFUL  FIBER  PLANTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 

Pennisetum  alopecuros. 

A  coarse  perennial  grass  of  central  India,  with  strong,  tougli  leaves,  from  which 
ropes  are  made  on  Mount  Abu. 

Perezia  \vrrightii. 

8yn.  r.  arizonica. 

Exogen.     (omposiUv.     Perennial  herb  1  to  3  feet. 
Southwestern  Texas  to  soutliern  Arizona. 

Surface  Fiber. — Xi  tlio  junction  of  the  brandies  with  the  roots,  and  covering 
the  greater  part  of  the  former,  is  a  soft,  silky  substance,  wliicli  is  used  by  f  be  Apache 
Indians  in  gunshot  and  other  wounds  to  stop  hemorrhages,  for  which  it  is  well 
adapted.     {Dr.  7s'.  Palmer.^ 

Periploca  aphylla. 

An  asclepiadaceous  shrub  of  India,  Persia,  Arabia,  and  Nubia.  The  liber  resists 
water,  and  for  this  reason  "is  employed  in  Sind,  with  that  of  Leptndenia  sparium,  for 
making  into  ropes  and  bands  used  for  wells."  ( I>r.  Stocks. )  Savorgnan  also  mentions 
F.  larigaia,  the  peluria,  or  down,  from  the  fruit  of  which  is  utilized  as  quilts  for  beds. 

Peteria  (Braz.).     See  Furcrcea  gifjantea. 

Phalsa  and  Phalsi  (Intl.)?  Pharsa  and  Phulsa  (Hind.).     See  Grewia. 

Philodendron  sp.    Guembipi  of  Argentina. 

A  genus  of  air  plants  found  in  tropical  America,  described  as  having  scrambling 
stems  wbich  attach  themselves  to  trunks  of  trees.  "An  epipbyt  with  long  aerial 
roots.  Fiber  is  prejiared  from  the  leaves,  and  the  bark  of  the  roots  is  used  for  ro])es 
tliat  are  indestructible  in  Avater."  {Xiederlein.)  Examples  were  shown,  Argentina 
exhibit,  W.C.E. ,1811.3. 

Philodendron  iinhc,  known  as  the  Imhe  in  Brazil,  is  also  enumerated  in  the  list  of 
useful  iibers  in  the  State  of  Para. 

Phoenix  dactylifera.     The  Date  Palm, 

This  palm,  the  cultivatiou  of  which  goes  back  into  the  ages,  is  found  in  all  tropical 
eastern  countries,  and  has  been  distributed  to  other  lands.  It  has  been  introduced 
into  cultivation  in  Florida,  in  the  United  States,  though  wholly  for  its  fruit.  Its 
native  names  are  legion,  but  as  it  is  more  regarded  for  its  fruit  than  its  fiber,  and 
many  of  its  names  refer  to  the  fruit,  it  is  not  important  to  enumerate  them. 

Structural  Fiber. — According  to  Royle,  the  natives  of  Arabia  and  the  north  of 
Africa  have  long  used  the  leaves  for  mats,  baskets,  etc.,  and  the  foot  stalks  of  the 
leaves  for  cordage.  In  the  Die.  Ec.  Prod.  Ind.  the  following  account  is  given 
regaiding  the  uses  of  the  plant  as  fiber  by  the  natives  of  that  country. 

In  the  Panjiib,  mats,  fans,  baskets,  and  ropes  are  made  from  the  leaves,  whicli  are 
known  as  hhutni,  pattra,  and  Ihuxhah.  The  petioles  (chlmri)  make  excellent  light 
walking  sticks,  and,  when  split  up,  furnish  material  for  making  crates  and  baskets. 
The  fibrous  network  which  forms  the  sheathing  base  of  the  petioles,  called  kabdl, 
khajiir  ka  hokia,  or  khajiir  munj,  is  used  for  making  pack  saddles  for  oxen,  and  the  fiber 
separated  from  it  for  cordage.  The  bunch  of  fruit  stalks,  hiihnrd,  is  said  to  make  a 
good  broom,  and  is  employed  for  that  purpose  in  the  Panjiib.  See  chapter  on  "Uses 
of  Fibers,"  Introduction. 

The  huts  of  the  poorer  classes  are  entirely  constructed  of  its  leaves;  the  fiber  (/i/) 
surrounding  the  bases  of  their  stalks  is  used  for  making  ropes  and  coarse  cloth,  the 
stalks  themselves  for  crates,  baskets,  brooms,  walking  sticks,  etc.,  and  the  wood  for 
building  substantial  houses.     (See  fig.  89.) 

Other  species. — P.  acaulis  is  the  dwarf  date  palm.  Rope  is  made  from  its  broad 
leaves,  and  it  also  supplies  thatch  material  for  native  huts.  The  leaves  of  P.farin- 
ifera  are  made  into  coarse  sleeping  mats  in  India,  while  the  split  petioles  are  fash- 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE. 


261 


ioned  into  baskets.  lu  t'liina  the  liber  is  used  for  brushes.  The  leaves  of  F.  paJiiCoaa 
suiiplies  material  for  roii^h  ropes  in  the  Suiularbaus.  which  are  iised  for  securiujjj 
boats,  logs,  etc.,  aud  its  leaves  are  also  employed  for  thatching.  /'.  syhestris,  the 
wild  date,  is  an  India  aud  Ceylon  specjes.  In  Bengal  its  leaves  are  used  for  baskets, 
mats,  aud  bags,  aud  in  Bombay  lor  brooms,  brushes,  aud  fans.  The  fiber  is  also 
adajited  for  paper  making. 

Phormium  tenax.     New  Zealand  Flax.    - 

Kudogeu.     LUiac.a  .     A  liliaceous  jilaut  growing  in  bunches. 

Native  xames. — Nearly    sixty    native  names  are  enumerated  by  Dr.   Hector. 
Among  these  may  be  mentioned:  .Hiraulawa  or  Hatiraitkaua,  used  for  finest 
mats;  Harakeke,  naniie  of  all  but  the  irharariki  form;  Huhiioa,  long  fiber,  mats, 
fishing  lines,  etc.;  Bunihunikika,  for  rough  gariueuts;  Korako,  for  best  gar- 
ments; Xfiittunui,  for  best  garments,  quick  grower;   One,  narrow  leaf,  fine  fiber, 
next  to  Tapoto:  Pan- 
taniwha,  strong  libor 
for      fishing     Hues, 
nets,  etc. ;   liaiaron, 
from  East  Cape,  and 
the  strongest  of  all. 
Taihore,  light  green 
leaf,with  wide  black 
edge ;  Tapoto,  leaves 
narrow,  deep  purple 
margin;  Tarciriki , 
fine  aud  soft;  Tihorc, 
plant  of  any  varie- 
ty, in  Waikato  best 
var.    cultivated. 
TVIiarariki,  Aveak  fi- 
ber; etc.     The  fiber 
is  known  as  2Inka. 
Haraktke  is  the  com- 
mon variety  of  the 
lowlands;  I'aritane- 
wha,  the  yellow  var. 
of  the  high  regions 
or  hills,  and  Taihore 
the  best  quality. 
Native  of  New  Zealand, 
aud  found  on  Norfolk  Is- 
land aud  in  other  portions 
ofAustralia.     Distributed 
to  the  Azores,  St.  Helena, 
Algiers,  South  France,  and 
introduced  in  1798  into  tlic  south  of  Ireland.     Thrives  on  the  Taciiic  Coast  (California) 
where  it  is  cultivated  as  a  tie  plant.     In  its  native  countries  it  is  never  fouud  far  from 
the  sea.     Captain  Cook  first  brought  this  fiber  to  the  notice  of  Europeans,  he  having 
found  it  in  common  use  by  the  natives  of  New  Zealand,  as  he  speaks  of  "a  grass 
l)]ant  like  flags,  the  nature  of  flax  or  hemp,  but  superior  in  quality  to  either,  of 
which  the  natives  make  clothing,  lines,  etc."     It  also  flourishes  on  the  west  coast  of 
Scotland,  though  the  winters  have  occasionally  been  too  severe  for  it.     The  leaves 
of  the  plant  in  Ireland  grow  to  5,  6,  7,  and  8  feet  high,  and  it  is  propagated  by  oftsets 
which  are  not  removed  until  the  parent  is  4  years  old.     Fig.  2,  PI.  YH,  is  a  o-reeu- 
heuse  ]dant  of  New  Zealand  flax. 
SxKUCIUKAi  Fiber.— New  Zealand  flax  fiber  is  almost  white  in  color,  flexible,  soft. 


ImIui,  I'lutiiix  dactiiUj'era 


2G2  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

and  of  a  silky  Inster.  The  bundles  of  fibers  form  filaments  of  unequal  size,  wliich  are 
easily  separated  by  friction.  It  has  considerable  elasticity,  but  readily  cuts  with 
the  nail.  Microscopically  examined,  according  to  Yetillart,  the  fibers  are  reuuirka- 
ble  for  their  slight  adherence.  The  individual  fibers  seem  very  reguhir,  having  a 
uniform  thickness,  and  the  surface  is  smooth ;  they  are  stiff,  straight,  and  very  fine, 
and  the  central  cavity  is  A^ery  apparent. 

The  Department  of  Agriculture  was  able  to  secure  from  the  New  Zealand  exhibit, 
Phil.  Int.  Exh.,  187G,  a  collection  of  over  ICO  specimens  of  this  fiber  and  its  manufac- 
ture, the  series  well  illustrating  the  many  uses  of  this  valuable  textile,  the  methods 
of  preparation,  and  the  native  manner  of  dyeing  it.  The  niachiuo-prepared  series 
was  very  full,  and  the  samples  of  manufacture  includiid  nearly  everything  that  can 
be  made  of  fiber.  In  cordage  there  were  H-inch  cables  and  ropes  of  all  sizes,  liorse 
halters,  small  cordage,  lead  linos,  fish  liues  (for  sea  fishing),  and  twine  of  the  finest 
finish.  The  series  of  mattings  illustrated  the  many  ways  th.at  the  fiber  may  be  used 
in  the  househohl,  as  door  m.its,  parlor  and  bedroom  mats  (in  colors),  and  hearth 
rugs,  while  the  iiner  kinds  of  fiber  wore  made  into  clotli  not  unlike  linen  duck,  into 
satchels,  t.ible  mats,  shoes  (a  kind  of  sandal),  sacks,  etc.  Floor  matting,  carriage 
and  railway  mats  were  exliil)ited  in  variety,  plain  and  iu  colors.  The  nets,  of  which 
there  were  many  samjiles,  could  hardly  be  told  from  linen,  botli  in  color  and  finish. 
It  is  hardly  necessary  to  state  tliat  these  were  not  of  native  manufacture,  as  much  of 
the  fiber  was  exported,  made  up  into  the  various  .articles  enumerated.  This  was 
due  to  the  I'act  that  the  English  ropomakers  did  not  pay  for  flax  fiber  a  price 
proportionate  to  that  given  for  manila  hemp,  and  it  was,  therefore,  found  more 
profitable  to  manufacture  at  home  and  export  the  rope  rather  than  the  baled  fiber. 
Some  of  the  spcscimens  were,  to  the  touch,  as  soft  as  the  finest  flax,  and  such  fiV)er  is 
doubtless  well  adapted  to  fine  fabrics.  Varying  (juautities  of  the  fiber  liave  been 
imported  into  the  United  .States  for  the  manufiicturo  of  cordage  and  binding  twine, 
though  at  the  present  time  the  imports  are  small.  There  was  a  sudden  increase  in 
the  quantity,  however,  about  1892,  and  it  was  subsequently  learned  that  the  fiber 
was  largely  used  in  the  construction  of  the  "  staff,"  or  outer  covering  of  the  principal 
World's  Fair  buildings  at  Chicago.  It  v.a8  used  to  toughen  and  hold  together  the 
plaster  and  other  materials,  Avhich,  wlien  combined,  formed  this  building  material. 
As  to  tenacity,  Royle  gives  the  breaking  i)oint  of  New  Zealand  flax,  comp.ared 
with  flax  and  hemp,  as  2:^.7  to  11.75  and  16.7.5,  respectively.  In  the  otficial  Hand- 
book of  New  Zealand  it  is  stated  that  "during  a  late  severe  gale  at  Auckland  it  was 
found  that  flax  rope,  wlien  subjected  to  the  same  strain  as  manila  hemp  (Mum  Ux- 
UHk),  remained  unbroken,  while  the  other  gave  way."  Exi>erimeuts  by  Professor 
Hutton  with  leaf  strips  one-eighth  inch  iu  bre.adth  from  middle  jiart  of  young  full- 
grown  leaves  showed  the  following  lireakage  strain  for  four  varieties:  Tihore,  48 
pounds;  Ha rakcle,  i2  ]iounds;  raretatiiwha,  42  pounds;  Wharariki,  Si  pounds.  He 
concluded  that  Tihore  is  the  most  valuable  variety  for  all  purposes;  but  the  kinds 
that  should  be  cultivated  would  depend  upon  the  nature  of  tlie  soil,  for  swamp  flax 
of  excellent  (piality  could  be  grown  in  ]daces  where  the  superior  Tihore  could  hardly 
live.  But  all  the  varieties  of  /'.  colensoi  (now  7*.  cooldannm)  should  be  carefully 
avoided,  or,  if  manufactured  into  fiber,  should  not  be  sent  into  the  market  under 
the  same  r.ame  as  fiber  from  P.  tenux,  or  the  latter  will  fall  in  the  estimation  of  the 
]iub]ic,  from  the  inferior  strength  of  the  former. 

PuoDrcTiox. — On  the  best  lands  an  acre  m,ay  contain  2,000  bunches  of  the  plant, 
or  100,000  leaves.  These  leaves,  after  cutting  ofi'  the  gnmmy  and  useless  butts  and 
drying  iu  the  sun,  weigli  about  five  to  the  pound,  so  that  an  .acre  may  give  nearly 
10  terns  of  sun-dried  leaves.  When  the  outer  leaves  only  are  taken  the  quantity  will 
be  reduced  to  4  tons.  Assuming  a  yield  of  15  i)er  cent  of  clean  fiber  upon  these  1 
tons,  the  return  should  bo  12  hundredweight  an  acre,  to  which  may  be  added  about 
8  hundredweight  of  tow.  The  weight  of  green  leaf  required  to  produce  1  ton  of  fiber 
is  stated  by  different  authorities  as  fcdlows:  5J  tons,  6  tons,  Oi  tons,  G|  tons,  7  tons, 
7  to  8  tons.  To  obtain  2,000  bunches  to  the  acre,  however,  tlie  planting  must  be  vei-y 
close.     (Spon.) 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  263 

Nkw  Zealand  Fi.ax  ix  Caotohnia. — The  plant  lias  been  grown  in  California 
for  several  years,  ami  thrives  in  many  localities.  I  have  endeavored  to  learn  the 
history  of  its  introdnction,  l)nt  am  nnable  to  make  positive  statements  at  this  writ- 
ing. Professor  llilgard,  the  director  of  the  State  agricnltural  experiment  station  at 
Berkeley,  has  grown  it  at  the  station  for  some  time,  sending  plants  to  snbstations 
and  to  farmers  to  be  grown  for  leaves  that  are  used  instead  of  rope  for  tying  vines. 
He  informs  me  that  the  area  on  Avhich  it  can  be  snccessfuUy  grown  is  very  large,  as 
it  seems  to  require  mnch  less  water  than  is  currently  supposed.  A  tall  variety  is 
common  as  an  ornamental  plant  in  the  gardens  about  the  bay;  the  one  he  has  been 
growing  and  distributing  for  years  is  of  lower  habit,  but  its  fiber  seems  to  be 
stronger  and  finer.  Once  started,  it  will  do  without  irrigation  almost  anywhere  in 
the  Coast  Range  where  frosts  are  not  too  heavy.  In  the  Great  Valley  it  seems  to  be 
limited  to  over  8  to  10  inches  of  rainfall,  unless  irrigated,  but  with  irrigation  it  will 
grow  fairly  anywhere  within  the  valley,  and  up  to  2,000  feet  in  the  Sierra  foothills. 

Small  lots  of  leaves  received  by  the  Department  from  California  were  cleaned  by 
W.  T.  Forbes,  and  a  strong,  valuable  fiber  was  obtained  from  them.  An  efibrt  was 
also  made  to  secure  leaves  in  sufiicient  quantity  to  obtain  enough  fiber  for  practical 
test,  but  as  the  leaves  do  not  stand  transportation,  and  would  necessarily  be  several 
weeks  on  the  way,  the  attempt  was  abandoned. 

About  1890  the  Department  received  (through  the  State  Department)  a  quantity 
of  seed  sufficient  for  experimental  purjioses,  which  was  distributed  in  Florida  and 
other  Southern  States.  The  seed  must  have  been  injured,  however,  as  it  failed  to 
germinate,  even  in  the  conservatories  of  the  Department.  In  future  experiments 
plants  should  be  distributed  instead  of  seeds,  as  the  supply  can  easily  be  secured 
from  the  Pacific  Coast,  and  it  is  claimed  that  seedlings  do  not  inherit  the  character- 
istics of  the  plants  from  which  tlie  seed  is  derived.  Besides,  the  early  growth  of 
plants  from  seeds  is  very  slow.  As  Kew  Zealand  fiax  culture  is  possible  in  the 
United  States,  a  full  account  of  the  practice  in  New  Zeahmd  is  given. 

Cultivation. — Phormium  ienax  will  grow  in  almost  any  soil,  but  the  more  suita- 
ble the  soil  tlie  finer  the  quality.  It  grows  best  on  light,  rich  soil,  by  the  sides  of 
rivers  and  brooks,  Avhero  sheltered  from  the  wind.  A  rich,  dry,  but  not  deep,  clay 
soil  having  yellow  clay  subsoil,  with  plenty  of  light  and  air,  is  very  suitable,  but 
the  greatest  crops  are  reared  on  deep  volcanic  soil.  A  well-drained  swamp  gives 
large  returns,  this  fact  having  been  verified  by  observation  in  the  Upper  Waikato 
and  elsewhere. 

Stagnant  marshes  are  prejudicial  to  the  growth  of  fiax,  but  as  soon  as  they  are 
drained  and  the  water  sweetened  the  same  fiax  will  grow  rapidly.  The  drains 
should  be  open,  and  the  water  therein  slioukl  flow  about  V2  inches  below  the  surface. 
If  practicable,  swamp  land  should  be  plowed  as  soon  as  it  is  dry  enough  for  the 
purpose,  and  allowed  to  remain  all  summer,  or  till  March,  when  it  should  be  again 
plowed,  and  planted  immediately  thereafter.  The  soil  will  be  well  pulverized  by 
that  time.  Should  the  land  become  verj'  dry  in  summer,  the  drains  might  lie  stopped, 
so  as  to  irrigate  the  soil;  any  land  fchab  is  jieriodically  inundated  is  very  suitable  for 
promoting  rapid  growth.  Alluvial  soil  should  also  be  plowed  in  winter  or  spring, 
and  allowed  to  dry  until  autumn,  when  it  should  again  be  plowed  and  planted — 
that  is,  in  March  or  Aiiril,  or  as  soon  as  the  autumn  rains  arrive;  in  fact,  the  earlier 
the  better,  for  the  plants  make  roots  all  winter,  and  are  ready  to  come  away  with  a 
vigorous  growth  in  spring. 

The  plants  should  bo  sown  in  rows,  and  in  the  same  way  as  trees  are  planted;  but 
opinions  dift'er  as  to  the  distance  from  row  to  row,  and  from  plant  to  plant  in  a  row. 
It  seems  to  bo  overlooked  that  planted  Phormium  will  not  l>e  allowed  to  grow  into 
large  bushes,  as  it  does  in  the  uncultivated  state.  On  the  contrary,  the  constant 
cutting  which  will  be  earned  on  will  confine  it  within  a  comparatively  limited 
space.  The  roots  thrown  out  by  the  first  plants  will  undoubtedly  spread  around  it, 
but  still  it  will  always  be  practicable  to  keep  the  bunches  within  small  areas. 
With  this  view,  the  rows  might  be  only  1  feet  apart,  and  ouly  3  feet  between  plants 


2G4         USEFUL  FIBER  PLANTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 

ill  the  row.  At  all  CA-ents,  the  quantity  of  soil  that  would  he  saved  in  this  way 
would  justify  the  experiment  on  a  small  scale.  In  this  case  the  roots  should  be 
planted  across  the  lines  in  rows.  Six  feet  is  generally  recoinnieuded  to  be  between 
rows  and  between  plants,  because  closer  planting  might  impoverish  the  soil;  but  it 
should  be  kept  in  view  that  llax  needs  shelter,  and  the  proximity  of  the  plants  to 
each  other  would  alVord  this,  and  assist  in  drawing  up  the  leaves  and  ihaking  finer 
fiber.  If  suitable  land  is  chosen,  it  is  thought  that  impoverishment  of  soil  Avill  not 
result  from  tlie  close  ])lanting. 

AVith  the  view  of  still  further  economizing  space,  it  has  been  suggested  that  about 
10  or  12  rows  should  be  planted,  then  a  break  of  10  or  12  feet  should  be  left  for  drays 
to  pass  along  and  collect  the  leaves  when  cut.  Then  other  10  or  12  rows  should  be 
planted,  then  another  break,  and  so  on.  The  extent  of  the  ground  to  be  planted  must, 
however,  regulate  this.  About  one  thousand  roots,  ])lanted  6  feet  apart  each  way, 
will  cover  an  acre  of  land;  but  if  the  land  is  planted  4  by  3  feet,  as  recommended 
above,  about  one-third  more  will  be  required  for  an  acre.  In  one  ])lant  of  Fhonniitin 
there  will  be  from  20  to  50  roots  for  transplanting.  Opinions  diti'er  also  as  to  the 
number  of  roots  that  should  be  ]>lanted  together;  one,  two,  ami  three  are  variously 
recommended.  If  two  or  three  are  planted  together,  a  large  space  of  ground  would 
be  required  to  ho  left  around.  Care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  planting  the  roots  from 
which  a  seed  stem  has  been  thrown  out,  or  planting  the  center  i)ortit>n  of  an  old 
plant,  which  is  not  so  productive  as  young  shoots,  having  a  tendency  to  run  to 
flower,  when  it  requires  more  nourishment  than  all  the  leaves  do.  The  flower  stalk 
should  therefore  be  cut  down  as  early  as  possible;  and  when  this  is  done  the  cut 
part  should  be  rubbed  over  with  a  little  earth  to  prevent  "  Ideeding,"  or,  better  still, 
twisted  off.  But  if  the  close  planting  be  adopted,  only  one  root  should  be  planted 
at  one  place.     {Dr.  Hector.) 

Pkkpauation  of  the  Fibki!. — The  maturity  of  the  leaf  is  ascertained  by  its  texture 
and  firmness,  or  by  its  being  s])lit  at  the  point,  or  b}'^  the  recurving  of  the  blades  from 
the  central  midribs.  The  leaf  of  the  best  I'hormium  should  be  over  .">  feet  in  length, 
excluding  the  butt.  The  top  of  the  leaf  should  feel  soft  to  the  touch,  and  droop  a 
little;  this  occurs  in  winter. 

The  habit  of  the  plant  is  to  form  large  tufts,  its  sword-shaped  leaves  growing  in 
opposite  rows  and  clasping  each  other  at  the  base. 

One  variety  forms  leaves  5  and  6  feet  long,  while  another  is  not  more  than  half  the 
length,  ilr.  Salesbury,  of  the  botanic  garden,  Chelsea,  found  that  plants  three 
years  old  will  produce  on  an  average  30  leaves,  besides  a  number  of  off"set8.  Six 
leaves  have  produced  1  ounce  of  dry,  available  fiber  after  having  been  scutched  and 
cleaned,  at  which  rate  an  acre  of  land  cropped' with  the.se  plants,  growing  3  feet 
apart,  would  yield  more  than  600  pounds  of  dressed  fiber.  The  leaves  being  cut  in 
the  autumn,  others  spring  up  anew  the  following  summer.  It  is  said  that  the  ]dant 
may  be  shorn  of  its  leaves  in  the  morning  and  before  the  sun  has  set  they  will  be 
ready  for  weaving  into  cloth. 

The  principal  operation  is  scraping  and  then  separating  the  fibers  with  the  thumb 
nail,  after  which  combs  are  employed  for  a  more  minute  separation.  The  fibers  ar»^ 
subse(£uently  dried  in  the  sun,  and  are  perfectly  white— some  short  and  strong, 
others  fine  and  silky.  According  to  the  reports  published  by  the  New  Zealand  com- 
missioner at  the  exhibition  of  1876,  the  Maoris  (or  natives)  only  use  a  portion  of 
the  fiber  upon  one  side  of  the  leaf,  the  leaves  being  selected  with  great  care.  They 
scrape  the  leaf  with  a  mussel  shell,  or  piece  of  hoop  iron,  on  the  thigh,  after  which 
it  is  soaked  in  water  and  then  dried.  Their  finest  samples  are  obtained  from  partic- 
ular varieties  of  tlje  plant,  only  the  youngest  and  best  leaves  being  used,  and  careful 
attention  being  paid  to  the  maniiiulation.  "This  native-dressed  fiber,  however, 
constitutes  but  a  small  portion  of  the  fiber  actually  prepared  on  the  island,  as  large 
manufactories  have  been  erected,  where  the  fiber  is  stripped  by  machinery."  Two 
modes  of  dressing  the  fiber  are  practiced,  known  as  the  "cold''  and  the  "warm" 
water  dressing.     The  leaves  of  the  flax  are  fed  to  a  machine  called  a  stripper  at  the 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE. 


2G5 


rate  of  100  to  120  feet  per  miniito.  .  The  drnnis  of  these  stripping  machines  are 
driven  at  the  rate  of  1,000  to  2,000  revolutions  per  minute,  tlieir  diameter  being  from 
14  to  20  inches.     After  passing  through  the  strippers,  the  partially  cleaned  fiber  is 
hand  washed  in  bundles  of  about  20  leaves;  these  bundles  are  suspended  in  water 
and  are  allowed  to  soak  for  about  two  hours,  the  fiber  is  then  spread  out  on  the 
bleaching  ground  for  a  time,  which  varies  according  to  tlie  weather,  and  then  hung         / 
on  lines  to  dry.     It  is  then  either  scutched  or  hackl«t^,  or  j^oth;  packed  in  bales,  and       / 
pressed  for  shipment.     When  the  stripper  is'  iu  good  order,  and  the  fiber  has  been 
fairly  cleaned,  the  loss  in  scutching  amounts  to  from  3  to  5  hundredweight  per  ton, 
and  in  hackling  from  2  to  3  hundredweight.     In  the  warm-water  dressing  the  same 
operations  are  gone  through  with,  with  the  exception  that  the  fiber  is  washed  and 
placed  to  soak  from  six  to  twenty-four  hours 
in  tanks  filled  with  warm  water,  which  is 
kept  heated  by  means  of  either  fire  or  a 
steam  pipe. 

In  a  report  to  the  State  Department  by 
United  States  Consul  Connolly  the  ibllow- 
ing  note  occurs: 

"To  imperfect  machinery  and  careless- 
ness in  the  selection  of  green  plants  may  be 
ascribed  the  apparent  coarseness  and  the 
inferiority  so  oftcu  complained  of  in  the 
flax  exported  from  certain  portions  of  New 
Zealand.  But  with  improved  fiax-dressing 
machinery  and  proper  care  exercised  in  the 
selection  of  the  raw  material,  a  very  superior 
article  can  be  produced.  The  fiber  of  Phor- 
mium  tenax  is  susceptible  of  a  much  higher 
degree  of  preparation  than  has  been  be- 
stowed upon  it  up  to  the  ])r('sent.  This, 
however,  is  not  altogether  the  fault  of  those 
who  are  engaged  in  its  manufacture;  it  is 
for  want  of  the  necessary  machinery.  The 
hand-dressed  article  jjioparedby  the  natives 
is  as  fine  as  silk  as  compared  with  the  mod- 
em machine-dressed  fiax  of  to-day.  This 
only  demonstrates  the  fact  that  the  fiber 
may  be  reduced  to  a  much  finer  quality,  and 
all  that  is  necessary  to  do  this  is  an  improved 
machine.  If  New  Zealanders  can  not  pro- 
duce the  re([iiisite  machinery,  I  trust  the 
inventive  genius  of  America  will  come  to 
the  rescue.  There  is  certainly  a  splendid 
opportunity  and  a  fortune  for  any  mau  who 

will  invent  a  machine  that  will  successfully  and  economically  reduce  New  Zealand 
flax  to  a  proper  degree  of  fineness." 

For  further  accounts  see  following  authorities:  Phormium  tenax,  a  Fibrous  Plant, 
edited  by  Sir  James  Hector,  New  Zealand,  1889;  The  Leaf  Fibers  of  tlie  United  Stat-cs, 
Eeport  No.  5,  Fib  Inv  Series,  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag.,  1893;  U.  S.  Consular  Report,  May, 
1890;  Spon's  Enc,  Div.  III. 

*  Specimens. — U   S.  Nat.  Mus. ;  Mus.  U.  S.  Dept   Ag. ;  Field  Col.  Mus. 

Phragmites  communis.     Common  Heed  or  Eeed- grass. 

One  of  the  largest  of  our  native  grasses,  growing  to  the  height  of  12  feet,  the 
rather  stout  culms  bearing  numerous  broad,  spreading,  and  sharply  pointed  leaves 
1  to  2  feet  long.     It  has  deeply  penetrating  and  extensively  creeping  rootstocks, 


Fig.  90.— Keed  grass,  Phrwrmitfs  cnmmnnis. 


2(16         USEFUL  FIBER  PLANTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 

making  it  one  of  tlie  most  valuable  grasses  for  binding  tlie  banks  of  rivers  subject 
to  periodical  floods.  It  is  occasionally  found  along  the  coast  in  brackisli  marshes 
and  sometimes  upon  sandy  soils,  and  possibly  may  be  employed  with  advantage  for 
binding  drifting  sands  or  those  liable  to  be  shifted  by  high  tides.  The  young  shoots 
are  liked  by  cattle  and  the  mature  stenis  make  the  best  of  tliatch.  It  is  very  widely 
distributed  throughout  the  temperate  regions  of  both  hemispheres,  growing  along 
river  banks,  borders  of  lakes,  etc.     (/'.  Lamson-Scribinr.) 

The  revised  name  of  this  species  is  I'hragmitcs  pin-agmifes. 

Fiber. — In  Mexico,  where  the  plant  grows  20  to  2;")  feet  high  (near  to  water),  the 
stems  are  used  for  various  purposes  by  the  natives,  according  to  statements  made  by 
Dr.  E.  Palmer,  who  says  that  they  cut  it  1o  certain  lengths  and  having  split  it,  beat 
it  flat  and  then  weave  it  in  and  out,  making  a  large  s([uare  mat,  with  which  they 
form  the  ends  of  their  houses.  They  place  it  over  the  rafters  before  the  tnle  thatch 
is  put  on.     It  18  also  used  to  cover  verandas,  and  as  screens  for  doors.     (See  fig  *10). 

The  species  is  very  common  in  Europe,  where  it  is  sometimes  utilized  in  industrial 
economy.     It  has  been  emjdoyed  in  Italy  for  the  manufacture  of  grass  whisks. 

'  Specimens  are  shown  in  the  U    S.  Nat.  Mus. 

Phryniuni  dichotoma.     Syuoiiym  of  Clyuofiy7ie,  see  under  Maranta. 

Phul  shola  (IJeng.)-     ^ee  ^I'JsrJnjnomene. 

Phiilahi  (Iiid.).     Acacia  modeata. 

Phytelephas  macrocarpa.     The  Ivoky  Plant. 

A  curious  South  Americnn  plant  allied  to  the  palms,  which  jjroduces  the  vegetable 
ivory  nut  of  commerce.  It  is  known  in  Peru  as  the  Piilipiintu,  and  its  leaves  are 
sometimes  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  articles  of  domestic  ecouomj',  besides  as 
a  thatch  material  for  native  huts. 

Piassaba  and  Piassava;  also  written  Piacaba. 

of  I'ara  {see  Lcopohlinia  2)ia8xaba);  of  liahia  (see  Attaha  funifvra). 

(See  also  Dhtiiosperma  fibrosnm,  Borassiis  fiabellifer,  liaphia  ritiifera,  etc.,  which  are 
piassaba-like  fibers.  Both  piasmba  and  piassara  are  used  in  the  economic  literature 
of  the  bass  fibers.  I  prefer,  however,  the  spelling  of  the  specific  name  of  the  Para 
form  — p  ill  s  s«  ba . 

Picea  canadensis.     White  Spruce. 

Exogen.     Coniferfr.     A  tree,  .50  to  1.50  feet. 

Common"  xamks. — White  spruce,  single  spruce,  skunk  spruce,  cat  spruce,  etc. 

This  tree  is  ibund  in  low  and  rather  wet  soils,  or  borders  of  ponds  .ind  swamps, 
and  is  mo>t  comuu)n  along  the  northern  boundary  of  the  United  States;  also  New- 
foundland, British  Columbia,  and  Alaska.     A  valuable  timber  tree. 

Woody  Fiber. — "The  tough  and  flexible  root  was  formerly  made  into  rope  and 
twine  by  the  Indians,  and  used  to  stitch  together  their  birch-bark  canoes."  ( Dr.  l'. 
Harnrd.) 
.  The  Indians  and  woodmen  in  New  Brunswick  make  use  of  spruce  roots  to  tie  up 
small  packages,  moose  calls,  etc.,  and  the  Micmacs  of  Nova  Scotia  also  make  use 
of  the  root  for  ihe  same  |)urpose.  The  root  is  used  most  commonly  just  as  it  comes 
from  the  grouud,  and  is  then  quite  pliable  and  very  tough;  less  often — an<l  then 
only  when  it  is  desired  to  make  a  somewhat  long  string — the  root  is  pounded  under 
water  between  two  stones,  care  being  taken  to  bruise  and  mash  the  wood  cells  with- 
out breaking  the  bark.  In  this  condition  it  is  possible  to  knot  and  tie  the  roots  with 
nearly  the  sam<^  ease  as  that  of  a  fiber  yiroper,  and  the  roots  retain  considerable  of 
their  original  toughness,     {Dr.  Wirt  Taasm.) 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE. 


■2r,7 


Picea  mariana. 

Syn.  Picea  nigra. 

COM.MOX  xa:\IES. — lilaek  spruce,  donl)!*!  spiMice,  liluc  spriu^e.  ycwpiiu',  ami  many 
others;  Epineite  jaune,  Quebec. 

l?auges  from  Newfoundland  and  Labrador  to  Hudson  Bay,  northwest  t<>  north  of 
Mackenzie  Kiver,  eastern  slopo  of  Rocky  Mountains,  south  through  nortliern  States 
to  l\Minsylvania,  central  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  and  along  the  Alleghany 
Mountains  to  high  peaks  of  North  Carolina. 

A  soft  wood,  used  for  timber,  fences,  posts,  and  otlier  purposes;  largely  einiiloyed 
as  a  material  for  wood  pulp  in  paper  nianufactnr(\ 

Woody  Finicu. — The  product  of  forest  trees,  known  as  wood  pulp,  is  included  in 
tho  second  grouj)  of  the  classiiication  of  liber  substances.  Ahout  ~>0  yiw  cent  of  the 
substance  of  wood  consists  of  cellulose,  the  percentage  of  cellulose  in  a  i>aper  product 
fixing  the  economic  value  of  the  plant  as  a  source  of  paper  material.  A  larger  per- 
centage of  cellulose  occurs  in  soft  woods  than  in  hard  woods,  and  hence  the  soft 
Avoods  are  the  more  useful  for  tho  manufacture  of  wood  pulp.  The  following  table 
from  "Cellulose,"  by  Cross  and  lievaii,  will  serve  to  illustrate  this  ])oint: 


Wood. 


Birch 

Beech 

Box 

Ebony 

Oak.'. 

Alder 

Lignum  vit* 

Lime 

Cliestnut 

Fir 

Maliogany... 

Poplar 

Pine 

Teak 

Willow 


12.48 
12.57 
]2.  90 
9.4(1 
li.  12 
10.70 
10.88 
10.10 
12.  03 
12.87 
12.39 
12.10 
13.87 
11.05 
11.  (iC 


Cellulose, 


yj.  o- 
45.  47 
48.14 
29.90 
39.47 
54.02 
32.  22 
53.09 

52.  C4 

53.  27 
49.07 
02.77 
56.  !I9 
43.12 
55.72 


Aq.  ex- 
tract. 


2.G5 
2.41 

2.  63 
9.  90 

12.  20 
2.48 
COG 
3.50 
5.41 
4.05 
9.91 
2.88 
1.26 

3.  93 
2.  65 


1.14 
0.41 
0.63 
2.54 
0.91 
0.87 
15.  63 
3.  93 
1.10 
1.63 
1.02 
1.37 
0.97 
3.74 
1.23 


Noncellu- 
loso. 


28.21 
39. 14 
35.  70 
48.08 
34.30 
31.33 
35.21 
29.33 
28.82 
28.18 
27.61 
20.88 
26.91 
38.16 
28.74 


Cellulose  is  the  preponderating  constituent  of  all  vegetable  tissues.  In  addition 
to  tlie  cellulose  there  are  present  in  the  wood  nitrogenous  substances,  resins,  gums, 
anil  (mineral)  ash,  wliicli  are  to  be  removed,  more  or  less,  in  order  to  produce  the 
fiber  or  pul]).  To  do  this  economically  and  in  such  a  manner  tliat  the  fiber  may 
remain  long,  pure,  and  white,  and  the  mass  preserve  its  "felting''  ((ualities  as  much 
as  possible,  is  the  aim  of  the  various  processes. 

Eco.voMic  CONSIDERATIONS. — While  many  species  of  trees  are  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  wood  pulp,  the  larger  amount  is  jirepared  from  spruce,  a  frequent  practice 
being  to  add  scnne  poplar  or  aspen  pulp  to  whiten  tlie  spruce  pulp.  Among  other 
woods  that  are  employed  are  cottonwood,  bass  wood,  birch,  buckeye,  gum,  balsam 
fir,  hemlock,  jack  pine,  cedar,  etc.,  wliile  in  tlie  South,  pine.  cyi)ress,  and  other  woods 
are  used. 

The  kinds  of  wood  employed  in  this  industry  depend  upon  three  things:  (1)  The 
resulting  product  as  to  (juality  and  yield;  (2)  the  cheapness  and  convenience  of  the 
necessary  plant  and  chemicals;  (3)  the  application  to  various  woods. 

Coming  to  the  practical  matter  of  th*;  preparation  of  wood  pulp,  or  wood  liber,  Dr. 
Samuel  P.  Sadtler  states  that  two  Navieties  of  pulj)  for  paper  making  may  bo  obtained 
from  wood,  viz,  mechanically  and  chemically  prepared  iiulji.  Of  these,  the  mechan- 
ical wood  pulp  obtained  by  shredding  tho  wood  serves  for  the  inferior  grades  of 
paper  only,  as  its  libers  are  too  short  and  do  not  "felt"  or  interlace  sufficiently.  It 
can.  therefore,  be  used  only  as  a  filling  material.  Moreover,  the  resin  present  resists 
strongly  the  action  of  bleaching  agents,  and  the  paper  becomes  yellowish  after  a 
time.     On  the  other  hand,  what  is  termed  chemical  wood  pulp  has  met  with  great 


208  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

favor  as  a  very  pure  and  easily  obtainalile  form  of  cellulose.  Two  main  processes 
for  its  production  are  now  in  use,  the  caustic  soda  i)rocess  and  the  bisulphite 
process.  In  the  former,  the  wood  chopped  up  and  crushed  is  boiled  under  pressure 
with  caustic  soda.  This  is  either  done  in  cylindrical  boilers  at  pressures  varying 
from  i  atmospheres  (60  pounds),  as  first  used  by  Watt  and  Burgess,  to  14  atmospheres 
(210  pounds),  as  used  by  Sinclair,  or  by  Ungerer's  graduated  method  in  a  series  of 
nine  c(mnected  vessels,  using  low  pressure  and  partly  saturated  lyes  upon  the  fresh 
■wood  and  increasing  the  pressure  aud  using  fresher  lyes  upon  the  partly  converted 
wood.  Somewhat  more  than  50  jter  cent  of  the  soda  used  is  recovered  again  from 
the  washings.  The  alkali  process  is,  however,  being  graduallj'  displaced  by  the 
bisulphite  i>rocess.  As  first  ])roposed  by  Jlitscherlich,  acid  c;ilciuni  sulphite  was 
used.  The  temiierature  is  brought  gradually  to  118'^  C,  which  is  not  exceeded,  the 
pressure  being  from  2  to  3  atmospheres.  In  Kkman's  process,  acid  magnesium  sulphite 
is  used,  aud  a  pressure  of  from  5.V  to  G  atmospheres  is  attained.  Still  another  process 
is  that  of  Franke,  which  uses  bisui])hite  of  lime  again.  Cross  and  Bevau  explain 
the  efficacy  of  the  bisulphite  processes  by  saying: 

"The  chief  agency  is  the  liydrolytic  action  of  sulphurous  acid,  aided  by  the  con- 
ditions of  high  temperature  and  pressure;  and  the»8ubsidiary  agencies  are:  (1)  The 
prevention  of  oxidation;  (2)  the  removal  from  the  sphere  of  action  of  the  soluble 
products  of  resolution  in  combination  with  the  sulphite  as  a  double  compound,  for 
it  is  to  the  class  of  aldehytes  that  we  have  shown  that  the  noncellulosic  constituents 
of  wood  belong,  and  (3)  the  removal  of  a  portion  of  the  constituents  in  combination 
■with  the  base,  i.  e.,  with  expulsion  of  sulphurous  acid." 

The  several  bisulphite  processes,  as  compared  with  the  ones  mentioned  previously, 
yield  a  larger  amou7it  of  pure  fiber.  They  ]ireser\e  its  original  strtmgth,  which  is 
not  done  when  caustic  soda  acts  upon  the  loosened  liber  under  ])ressure,  and  there  is 
a  greater  economy  of  chemicals. 

In  Dr.  Fernow's  account  of  the  wood-pul])  industry  the  following  classes  are  rec- 
ognized :  (1)  The  mechanical  or  ground  jiulp  is  produced  by  grinding  the  wood  after 
proper  preparation  on  rapidly  rotating  stones  under  constant  fiow  of  water  (Yoelter 
process).  (2)  Brown  wood  pulp,  mainly  a  mechanical  pulp,  except  that  the  wood  is 
steamed  before  grinding,  under  a  pressure  of  2  to  G  atmospheres.  (3)  Chemical  wood 
pulp,  or  cellulose  proper  (in  this  country  called  "chemical  fiber  "),  is  produced  by  treat- 
ing fini'ly  divided  wood  or  wood  shavings  with  various  chemicals,  which  dissolse  or 
render  solulde  the  incrusting  substances,  leaving  the  fiber  as  long,  elastic,  and  pure 
as  the  raw  material  will  furnish  it,  while  the  al)ove  mechanical  processes  naturally 
shorten  and  deteriorate  the  fiber  mechanically.  The  chemical  processes  can  be  again 
classified  into  alkaline  and  acid  processes,  according  to  the  kind  of  chemicals  used. 

By  the  alkaline  jtrocesses  are  obtained  soda  p id j)  and  sulphate  puJp.  The  acid  proc- 
esses are  more  numerous.  Electro  pulp  is  derived  from  a  more  recent  process,  in 
which  the  wood  is  digested  in  a  solution  of  common  salt,  at  250'^  to  260"^  constantly 
electrolyzed.  For  detailed  accounts  of  these  processes,  see  Report  of  the  Division 
of  Forestry,  Annual  Report  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  for  189); 
Cellulose,  by  Cross  and  Bevan ;  and  Sadtler's  IIandl)Ook  of  Industrial  and  Organic 
Chemistry.  The  Avood-pulp  industry  in  1890  represented  183  mills,  located  in  22 
States,  and  with  a  total  daily  capacity  as  follows:  ^Mechanical  or  ground  pulp, 
407,000  pounds;  chemical  soda  fiber,  149,000  pounds;  chemical  sulphite  fiber,  105,000 
pounds.  The  average  yield  jier  cord  is  1.700  pounds  for  ground  pul]),  1,000  for  sul- 
phite, aud  800  for  soda  jmlji.  By  the  different  processes  the  value  of  a  cord  of  wood 
may  be  brought  to  $24..50  to  $30. 

"In  1888  the  stumpage  consumed  for  pulp  was  valued  at  $2,235,000.  The  product, 
225,000  tons  ground  and  112,500  tons  chemical  pulp,  wasvaluedtogetherat  $12,375,000, 
the  cajiital  employed  being  estimated  at  $20,000,000.  The  consumption,  in  round 
numbers,  was  indicated  in  1890  to  amount  to  1,000,000  cords  of  wood  per  annum. 
When  it  is  considered  that  about  1,000,000,000  pounds  of  book  and  news  paper  arc 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  269 

consumed  annually  in  this  country,  two-thirds  of  which  might  he  made  of  wood 
fiher,  there  is  still  a  considerable  margin  for  this  use  alone  to  he  supplied  hy  wood 
pulp."     (i>.  E.  Fernow.) 

Picea  sitchensis.     Tidelanu  Spruce. 

COMMOX  NAMES. — Tidclaud  spruce,  Sitka  spruce,  Menzics  spruce,  etc. 
Alaska,  south  to  Mendocino  County,  Cal.,  not  extending  more  than  50  miles  inland 
from  the  coast.  "A  large  tree  of  great  economic  value,  largely  manufactured  into 
lumber  used  for  construction,  interior  finish,  boat  building,  dunnage  of  vessels, 
cooperage,  wooden  ware,  etc."  {C.  S.  Sargent).  J.  G.  Cooper  states  that  the  long, 
tough,  fibrous  roots  are  used  by  the  Alaska  Indians  to  make  very  strong  baskets  and 
bags.  "P.  engelmanni,  the  white  spruce,  or  Arizona  spruce,  a  Rocky  jMountain  and 
Pacific  States  species,  has  similar  fibrous  roots,  which  are  used  as  basket  material." 
{Dr.  V.  Havard.) 

Pigna  cloth  (Phil.  Is.).     Same  as  piua.     Ananas  sativa. 
Pilea  scripta. 

Exogen.      Vrticacecv.     Large-leaved  herb. 
An  Indian  plant,  growing  in  the  temperate  Himalayas,  3,500  to  6,000  elevation. 
Referred  to  by  Royle  as  a  libror.s  plant.     P.  smilavifoHa  is  also  mentioned  by  Dr. 
Watt,  though  no  de<init(!  infornuition  is  to  be  obtained  regarding  its  fibers. 

P'i-ma  (China).     See  Ixicinus. 

Pimelea  axiflora. 

Exogen.     Thijmehvaceiv.     Slender,  branching  shrulj. 

Habitat,  Australia.  The  genus  I'imeha  comprises  some  70  species,  natives  of  Aus- 
tralia, New  Zealand,  Tasmania,  etc.  "The  curryljong  of  the  aborigines  is  a  tall, 
glabrous  shrub,  with  smooth  bark,  of  exceeding  toughness.  It  is  found  jjlentifully 
in  the  forests  and  gullies  in  alpine  and  subalpine  situations."     {Dr.  Guilfoijle.) 

Bast  Fiber. — A  specimen  was  secured  at  the  Phil.  Int.  Exh.,  1876,  prejjared  by 
Dr.  Guilfoyle,  who  states  that  all  the  species  of  the  genus  have  more  or  less  tough, 
stringy  bark,  suitable  for  textile  purposes.  It  is  made  into  fishing  lines,  whipcord, 
etc.,  and  is  adapted  to  paper  making.  The  seeds  of  1'.  axiflora  yield  an  oil  from 
which  the  genus — derived  from  the  Greek  jj///;e/e,  a  fat — received  its  name.  P.  cla- 
vata  is  a  shrub,  8  or  9  feet,  native  to  western  Australia,  which  also  produces  fiber. 

Pina  (Phil.  Is.).     Pineapple,  and  pineapjile  cloth.     See  Ananas  sativa. 

Pindayba,  or  Pindahyba  (Braz.).    Xylopia  sericea. 

Pine,  "Wood  of  (see  I'inus). 

Pineapple  (see  Ananas  sativa). 

Pine  fiber  and  Pine  -wool  (see  Pinus  jmlustris  and  sylvestris). 

Pinguin  (W.  Ind.).     See  Bromelia  pinguin. 

Pinuella  (W.  Ind.).     See  Karatas  plumieri. 

Pinus  palustris.     Long-leaf  Pine. 

Exogen.     Couifenv.     A  large  tree,  80  feet. 

In  the  United  States,  from  Norfolk,  Va.,  southward  to  Texas,  and  as  far  north  in 
the  middle  section  as  Tennessee.     The  turpentine  pine  of  th(>  Southern  States. 

Structural  Fiber. — One  of  the  most  interesting  series  in  the  fiber  collection  of 
the  Department  is  that  of  the  pine-fiber  specimens  furnisluid  by  the  Acme  Manu- 
facturing Company,  of  Wilmington,  N.  C.     The  raw  material  is  the  leaves  or  needles 


270         USEFUL  FIBER  PLANTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 

of  the  loug-leaved  piue,  wliich  also  produces  the  turpentine  of  commerce.  The  par- 
ticular process  is  said  to  he  the  invention  of  A.  F.  Scott.  The  exhihit  includes  a 
branch  of  pine,  the  gathered  needles,  and  sami)les  illustrating  processes  of  cooking, 
rubbing,  and  carding.  These  are  followed  by  the  various  products  obtained,  r.s 
pine  hair,  surgical  dressing  lint,  pine  oil,  burlap,  matting,  and  finally  bagging. 
When  the  jute  trust  i)ut  up  the  jirice  of  bagging  lor  baling  the  cotton  crop,  about 
1890,  as  high  as  1,000,000  yards  of  jiino-fibcr  cotton  bagging  was  produced,  and  the 
industry  gave  promise  of  being  extended.  A'ery  little,  if  any,  of  this  bagging  is 
manufactured,  however,  at  the  jiresent  time. 

A  physician  of  Wilmington  has  stated  that  the  fiber  made  of  jiine  straw  is  a  most 
valuable  agent  in  the  treatment  of  simple  and  compound  fracture,  surgical  dressing 
after  operations,  and  suppuration  of  wounds.  It  is  superior  to  cotton-batting,  lint,  or 
oakum.  Its  aromntic  odor  drives  away  Hies  and  prevents  maggots  from  burrowing 
in  wounds,  and  I  think  it  is  a  disinfectant  of  the  first  order. 

PiJEPAitATiox. — The  green  pine  straw  or  leaves,  galhored  in  the  surrounding  for- 
ests, is  brought  to  the  nulls,  where  the  company  purchases  it  at  15  cents  perhundreil 
pounds.  After  having  been  weighed,  the  straw  is  carried  into  a  shed  100  by  27)  feet, 
and  is  spread  upon  the  floor  to  be  cleaned  and  to  prevent  it  from  becoming  heated. 
An  elevator  takes  it  to  the  second  floor  of  the  building,  where  it  is  placed  in  two 
iron  cylinders  set  uj>  on  end  and  surrounded  by  steam  pipes.  These  extractors  are 
10  feet  deep  and  about  4  feet  in  width.  In  these  the  pine  leaves  are  thoroughly 
steamed,  the  vapor  going  tlirough  pipes  into  the  ordinary  distillery  worm  in  an 
adjoining  house.  Here  it  is  condensed.  The;  result  is  the  pine-leaf  oil,  the  leaves 
yielding  about  one-half  a  gallcm  of  oil  to  100  ])ounds  of  straw.  The  oil  is  a  valuable 
product,  and  is  destined  to  take  an  important  ])lace  in  the  advanced  pharmacopceia. 
It  is  very  highly  antiseptic,  possesses  the  advantage  of  being  useful  for  internal  as 
well  as  external  application,  and  is  valuable  for  many  surgical  and  medicinal  pur- 
poses. The  liquid  which  is  condensedfrom  the  vapor  with  the  oils  is  useful  for  various 
purposes  in  the  manufacture  of  other  fabrics. 

After  the  oil  has  been  extracted,  the  pine  straw,  which  has  become  a  very  rich 
black  in  color,  is  i)Iaced  in  six  large  iron  vats,  7  feet  wide,  8  feet  long,  and  5  feet 
deep,  and  Avith  a  capacity  of  holding  .3,000  to  4.000  pounds  each.  It  is  here  mixed 
with  water  and  alkali  and  thoroughly  boiled,  the  jirocess  being  necessary  to  remove 
the  silica  which  forms  the  outside  covering  of  the  leaf.  This  is  a  difficult  operation, 
requiring  great  skill  and  care.  The  silica  which  is  removed  is  used  for  tanning  and 
other  purposes.  During  all  this  process  of  cooking  the  pine  still  retains  its  aroma. 
The  last  boiling  process  continues  for  twelve  Jiours,  alter  which  the  straw  is  soaked 
forty-eight  hours  more,  and  then  it  is  ready  for  the  machinery  for  rubbing  uj)  the 
leaves. 

The  straw  taken  from  the  vats,  and  still  damp,  is  first  put  into  a  "rubber,"  as  it 
is  called,  and  which  consists  of  a  numl)er  of  cylindrical  screws  working  together 
with  both  rotary  and  lateral  motions.  The  machine  is  quite  complicated,  and  iurther 
description  need  not  be  given  in  this  condensed  account.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  the 
straw  being  fed  into  it  comes  out  of  the  other  side  a  jjure  fiber  of  a  rich  dark-brown 
color  and  of  a  soft  texture.  During  all  these  processes  it  is  kept  saturated  with 
water,  but  it  is  next  taken  to  the  wringing  and  bleaching  machine,  where  the  water 
is  squeezed  out  and  the  curing  process  is  begun.  It  is  then  carried  to  the  carding 
machine,  through  which  it  passes,  and  thence  to  the  drying  machine,  where  every 
particle  of  moisture  is  evaporated,  and  thence  to  the  press,  where  it  is  pnt  up  in 
bales  ready  for  market.     The  fiber  is  packed  in  burlap  bales,  225  pounds  to  a  bale. 

Finns  sylveatris,  Scotch  Piue,  is  the  European  species,  which  is  used  in  the  same 
manner  in  Silesia,  Thiiriiiger  Wald,  Sweden,  Holland,  etc.  This  textile  material  is 
employed  in  underclothing  as  a  substitute  for  flannel,  and  accredited  with  valuable 
medicinal  properties.  The  leaf  needles  are  first  distilled  with  water,  for  the  extrac- 
tion of  the  oil  contained  in  them.  The  waters  are  tised  in  medicinal  baths.  The 
remaining  material  is  treated  with  boiling  soda  solution,  for  the  removal  of  the  vege- 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  271 

table  matters.  The  resulting  tibrr,  ecjiuil  to  about  13;^  per  cent  of  the  fresh  needles, 
is  spun  into  yarn  and  then  woven.  The  material  is  largely  used  in  Vienna  and  Bres- 
lau  for  hospital  and  military  blankets.  The  fiber  is  also  emjiloyed  as  a  substitute 
for  horsehair  in  stuffing. 

Pinus  sabiniana.     Digger  Pine. 

CoMMox  XAMEs. — Bull  pine,  digger  pine,  Sal)ine's  pine,  gfay  leaf  ])ine,  etc. 
California,  Shasta  County,  along  the  foothills  of  the  C^oast  h'ang«)  and  the  western 
slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  below  4,000  feet  elevation.  The  wood  is  light,  soft,  and 
strong,  brittle,  compact,  but  not  durable.  The  edible  nuts  supply  the  Indians  with 
food,  and  "the  big  iibrous  roots  are  used  by  them  for  weaving  into  many  domestic 
articles."     A  tree,  75  to  100  feet. 

Pinus  strobus.     White  Pine. 

The  common  white  pine  needs  no  description.  Sargent  says  of  it:  "More  largely 
mannfactnred  into  lumber,  shingles,  laths,  etc.,  than  any  other  North  American  tree." 

Woody  Fiber. — The  species  is  only  introduced  in  this  catalogue  on  account  of  its 
being  one  of  the  woods  commonly  used  for  the  jjacking  material  knawn  as  "excelsior," 
which  is  to  that  extent  a  liber  substitute,  used  also  for  upholstery  and  for  filling 
cheap  mattresses.     Other  woods  used  for  this  purpose  are  poplar  and  spruce. 

There  are  a  dozen  different  kinds  of  machines  in  use  for  reducing  lumber  to  the 
sort  of  fine  shavings  which  form  excelsior.  After  cutting  the  lumber  to  right 
lengths  and  properly  seasoning  it,  it  is  run  through  the  machine,  which  practically 
cuts  it  first  into  thin  ribbons  and  then  into  threads  of  fiber  by  means  of  closely  set 
parallel  cutters.  Second-growth  timber  and  clean  body  wood  is  usually  employed 
in  the  manufacture. 

Pipturus  argenteus. 

Exogen.  Urticacecr.  Tall  shrub  or  tree,  50  to  60  feet. 
A  North  American  plant,  also  found  in  Australia  and  the  islands  of  the  Pacific.  In 
Queensland  it  is  known  as  the  Queensland  grass-cloth  plant,  or  native  mulberry,  and 
is  called  in  the  vernacular  Kowjanfiii.  Met  with  on  the  banks  of  rivers  and  smaller 
streams.  Dr.  Christy  states  that  it  aftbrds  a  fiber  of  fine  texture  and  great  strength, 
but  difficult  of  preparation.  The  bark  also  yields  a  brown  dye.  P.  asper  is  a  Cuban 
species.  P.  gaudichaudicoiiis  is  a  Sandwich  Island  species,  cited  by  Hillebrand  as 
P.  alhida,  "the  Mamake  of  the  n  tives  of  Hawaii;  one  of  the  two  principal  Kapa 
plants,  not  known  from  elsewhere."' 

Pissang  utan  (Malay).     See  Musa  fextilis. 
Pita. 

The  term  "jn^a"  has  been  given  to  the  fiber  of  several  distinct  species  of  fleshy 
leaved  plants,  and  is,  on  this  account,  confusing  as  a  name  to  distinguish  any  partic- 
ular kind  of  fiber.  It  is  used  oftentimes  as  a  prefix,  jrita  de  corojo  being  an  example, 
meaning  corojo  "Jlber,"  or  corojo  "hemi),"  from  Acrocomia  la^iiospalha.  It  has  also  been 
given  as  a  distinctive  name  to  the  fiber  of  A(jarc  umcricana,  Fitrcraa  (j'ujaniea,  Karatas 
j)1innieri,  and  BromcUa  sijlrcstris.  I  think  the  name  should  either  be  abandoned  alto- 
gether or  used  exclusively  to  designate  the  fiber  of  Jr/ace  amcricana,  to  which  it  has 
been  most  commonly  applied.  In  additiou  to  the  above  might  be  mentioned  several 
compound  names  such  n^  p'tla  Jioja,  from  Fiircraa  (j'ujantea,  etc. 

Pite  (Pr.).     Agave  americana. 

Plagianthus  betulinus.    Eibbon  Tree  of  JTew  Zealand. 

This  species  belongs  to  a  small  genus  of  StercuUacccv,  confined  to  South  Australia, 
Tasmania,  and  New  Zealand,  and  when  full  grown  is  a  tree  70  to  80  feet  high,  though 
often  seen  as  a  straggling  bush.     It  is  sometimes  called  the  lace  bark  tree. 


272  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

Bast  Fiber. — Its  bark  is  of  a  beautiful  lace-like  texture,  tearing  into  shreds  with 
greatest  ease,  but  flexible  and  strong.  According  to  the  Treasur3'  of  Botany,  the  tree 
is  called  Akaroa  by  the  New  Zealanders,  who  extract  a  fibrous  material  from  the 
young  branches,  known  as  Now  Zealand  cotton,  which  is  not  only  fine,  but  exceed- 
ingly strong,  though  resembling  flax  or  liemp  rather  than  cotton.  The  fiber  of  the 
ribbon  tree  is  utilized  in  the  manufacture  of  fishing  lines  and  nets,  and  to  some 
extent  of  cordage  and  paper. 

Plagiantliiis  piilchellKs,  the  Victorian  lienip  bush,  is  an  allied  species.  It  is  a  ((uick 
grower  and  reaches  a  height  of  6  to  12  feet,  resembling  a  birch  in  appearance.  It 
is  invarial>ly  found  growing  ou  the  banks  of  rivers  and  creeks,  and  is  said  to  be  plen- 
tiful on  the  Varra  River,  near  to  Melhourne.  It  is  siirprising  that  as  a  fiber  ])]ant  of 
great  value  this  should  be  so  long  overlooked.  It  is  fnlly  e([nal  to  the  (i>ueensland 
hemp  {Sida  rctiisa),  which  has  already  become  an  article  of  commercial  importance 
in  that  colony.  The  J'layiatithits  possesses  the  advantage  of  being  much  longer  in 
staple.  The  fiber  is  very  soft  and  glossy,  and  should  form  a  good  warp  yarn,  either 
by  itself  or  as  admixture  with  some  other  material.  This  and  the  ])recediiig  species 
were  secured  with  the  Australasian  collection  at  the  Phil.  Int.  Exh.,  1876,  prepared 
by  Dr.  Gnilfoyle.   ° 

Plagianthus  sidoides. 

Native  of  Australia.  Another  ]dant  of  this  region  to  which  has  been  given  the 
name  cnrrijoiig.  It  grows  to  a  height  of  10  to  12  IVet,  and  according  to  Spon  is  found 
on  the  Strzelecki  Range,  on  the  Gi]ipsland  gold  fields,  aixl  on  the  Dandcnong  Range, 
and  occurs  in  Tasmania. 

The  fiber  is  jirized  by  the  miners  for  cordage  purposes,  iind  niiglit  be  a])plied  to 
the  manufactnre  of  hats,  textiles,  and  paper.  The  bark  is  readily  removed  fnmi  the 
trunk  and  lirauches. 

Plantain  (see  Musa  spp.). 
Platanillo  (Veuez.).     AnvlcpiaH  cura,ssavica. 
Platano  f  Venez.).     See  .^/^»^s•«  sapientiim. 
Poa  abyssinica.     Teff. 

This  is  another  extensive  genus  of  grasses  which  includes  many  cultivated  Ameri- 
can species  of  fodder  grasses. 

F.  abyssinica  is  particularly  interesting,  as  it  was  cultivated  by  the  ancient  Egyp- 
tians, and  was  used  by  them  for  ''straw"'  in  brickmaking.  It  has  been  found  in 
ancient  clay  bricks.  At  the  present  time  it  is  largely  cultivated  in  Abyssinia  as  a 
cereal. 

P.  ca'spitosa,  Wire  grass  or  Australian  Meadow  grass,  is  a  native  grass  of  ^■ictoria, 
from  which  the  natives  make  mats.  "Our  Victorian  Wire  grass,  which  grows  to  a 
height  of  4  feet,  might,  with  proper  appliances,  even  rival  the  celebrated  Esparto  of 
south  Europe"  (Guilfoiile).  P.  cyitosuroides  is  found  in  northern  .Vfrica  and  southern 
Asia.  In  northwest  India  it  is  said  to  be  used  for  cordage  ami  for  mats.  Would 
prove  a  serviceable  paper  stock. 

Poa  pratensis.     Blue  Grass. 

C<  )MMOx  NAMES. — Kentucky  blue  grass ;  blue  grass  (in  Kentucky  and  Tennessee) ; 
green  grass;  June  grass  (in  New  England);  smooth  meadow  grass;  common 
spear  grass;  spear  grass;  English  grass ;  smooth-stalked  meadow  grass  (fig.  91). 
This  is  ai)parently  native  throughout  the  temperate  regions  of  the  Northern  Hemi- 
sphere.    It  ranges  from  Labrador  to  South  Carolina,  westward  to  the  Pacific  Coast, 
and  northward  to  Alaska.     In  the  limestone  regions  of  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  it 
attains  its  greatest  perfection,  and  is  there  regarded  as  the  king  of  pasture  grasses. 
It  requires  a  good  soil  containing  some  lime  in  order  to  yield  profitable  crops.     It  is 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE. 


273 


largely  employed  in  the  Eiisteni  and  Middle  States  as  a  lawn  grass,  for  which  use  it 
is  well  adapted.  There  are  several  varieties,  which  differ  chielly  in  the  breadth  and 
length  of  the  leaves,  particularly  those  at  the  base  of  the  .stem.  It  is  not  so  well 
adapted  for  the  production  of  hay  as  it  is  for  pasturage.     (F.  Lamson-Scribner.) 

Stkuctcral  Fiber. — Useful  for  tine  straw  plait.     In  1822  a  silver  medal  and  20 
guineas  were  awarded  to  Miss  So- 
phia Woodhouse,    of   Connecticut, 
for  a  new  material  for  straw  plait, 
this  species  having  been  employed.  ™«, 

It  was  then  supposed  to  be  ecjual  ^i^Jt 

to   the  Italian  straw  for  the  finer 
kinds  of  braids. 

Poah (Nepal).  See  Boehmeria. 

Pochote  (Mex.).  See  Ceiba 
pentandra  and  Eriodendron 
anfractuosum. 

P6i  (Ind.).    See  Maouiiapuya. 

Polechi  (Malay).  Hibiscus 
sabdariffa. 

PoUinia  (It.).  Chrysopotjon 
gryllus. 

Po-lo-ma  (China).  See  Ana- 
nas satira. 

Polyalthia  longifolia.  In- 
dian Fir. 

Exogen.     Anonacew. 

A  tree  of  the  hotter  parts  of  In- 
dia; "commonly  planted  on  ave- 
nues along  roads  in  Bengal  and 
south  India." 

Fiber. — Said  to  produce  a  good 
bast  fiber,  samples  of  which  were 
sent  to  the  Amsterdam  Exhibition, 
and  Ceylon,  yields  a  cordage  fiber  in  the  western  Ghats,  according  to  Dr.  Watt. 

Polygonatum  multiflorum.     Solomon's  Seal. 

A  moderate  genus  of  LUidcew,  distributed  over  the  temperate  parts  of  the  northern 
hemisphere.  The  familiar  s]>ecies  arc  graceful  woodhnul  herbs.  A  curious  example 
of  the  utility  of  the  above  species  as  a  textile  is  a  parasol  cover  from  Ireland  pre- 
served in  the  Kew  Mus. 

Polyporus  betulinus.     The  Razor-si  rop  Fungus. 

Found  upon  both  living  and  dead  birch  trees.  Pileus  from  3  to  6  inches  broad, 
smooth,  corky,  elastic,  hoof-shaped,  at  first  pale,  then  becomes  brownish  gray;  mar- 
gin incurved;  pileus  covered  with  a  thin  epidermis,  which  easily  peels  off;  pores 
white  or  tinged  with  brown.  The  wliole  plant  when  dry  is  very  light;  the  lower 
surface  is  frequently  rough,  with  numerous  needle-like  projections,  making  it  resem- 
ble a  Hydnum  when  viewed  horizontally. 

Pseudo-fiber. — While  the  substance  prepared  from  this  fungus  more  nearly 
resembles  leather  than  a  textile  fabric,  it  is  similar  in  structure  to  Fames  fomentarius, 
12247— Xo.  9 18 


91. — Kentucky  blue  grass,  Poa  pratensis. 


P.  coffeoides,  found  in  the  forests  of  AVynaad 


274         USEFUL  FIBER  PLANTS  OF  THE  WOKLD. 

and  is  therefore  included.  "  The  preparation  of  the  fungus  for  razor  strops  re(iuires 
that  it  be  cut  iu  the  autumn,  when  its  substance  has  become  dry  and  firm,  suljjected 
to  pressure  for  twenty -four  hours,  carefully  rubbed  with  pumice  stoue,  sliced  longi- 
tudinally, and  pieces  entirely  free  from  the  erosion  of  insects  glued  upon  a  wooden 
stretcher.  The  excellence  of  this  material  is  probably  due  to  the  minute  crystals  it 
contains  being  sufficiently  hard  to  act  upon  the  steel.  Cesalpinus  mentions  this  use 
of  fungous  growths,  and  the  barbers  of  that  period  were  familiar  with  it  It  seems 
strange  that  so  valuable  a  material  should  have  been  ovei'looked  in  modern  times." 
{B.  T.  Galloway.) 

P.  squamosns, theDrjad'a  Saddle,  maybe  mentioned  iu  the  same  category.  MeruliuH 
lacrynunis,  the  dry-rot  fungus,  the  mj'celinm  of  which  assumes  varions  forms  when 
spread  out  in  thick,  skiu-like  sheets,  serves  also  for  razor  strops.  See  also  Xi/Iostroma 
(jujaiiteuvi  and  Fomes  fomciitarius. 

Polytrichuni  commune.     Hair  Moss. 

An  interesting  example  of  the  economic  use  of  this  moss  is  a  hammock  preserved 
in  the  Kew  Mus.  from  Yorkshire;  also  "brooms  from  Sussex  and  from  P)erne  in 
Switzerland,  where  they  are  used  by  weavers  under  the  name  of  TVeber-Biirste,  or 
Wii7-::eI-Biirste." 

Pooah  (Ind.).     Mxontia piiya. 

Populus  deltoides.     Cottonwood, 

Syn.  /'.  monilifera. 

Esogen.     SaJicacea'.    A  tree,  75  to  150  feet. 

Common  names. — Cottonwood,  cotton  tree,  Carolina  poi)lar,  necklace  pojdar,  etc. 
Shores  of  Lake  Champlain,  Vermont,  through  southwestern  Kew  England  to  west- 
ern Florida;  west  along  northern  shores  of  Lake  Ontario  to  eastern  bases  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  of  Montana,  Colorado,  and  New  Mexico.  Wood  used  largely  in 
the  manufacture  of  light  ])acking  cases,  fence  boards,  wood  pulp,  and  for  fuel.  (C  S. 
Sargent.) 

Bast  Fiber. — The  tree  yields  an  abundance  of  long,  soft,  fibrous  bark,  used  by  the 
Indians  along  the  Colorado  Ri\er  for  ropes,  twines,  sandals,  mats,  etc.  "Whoever 
has  seen  the  jietticoats  made  of  the  inner  bark  of  the  cotton  wood  {!'.  frcmonti), 
worn  by  the  squaws  along  the  Colorado  River,  must  have  realized  the  possibility  of 
utilizing  the  same  material  as  well  as  that  of  the  allied  species."  (Dr.  V.  Harard.) 
P.  trichocarpa,  the  black  or  balsam  cottonwood  of  the  Northwest,  is  much  used  by 
the  northern  California  Indians  for  the  brown  work  of  the  woof  of  their  hats  and 
baskets. 

Potari  (I>eng.).     AhntUon  inilicum. 

Pothos  violaceus. 

A  genus  of  Aracew,  natives  of  India,  China,  Madagascar,  New  Holland,  etc. 
They  usually  have  cord-like  stems,  and  send  out  false  roots,  which  attach  themselves 
to  trees.  P.  violaceus,  the  wild  cocoa,  is  named  in  the  Flax  and  Hemp  Commission  list 
as  "  a  substitute  for  straw  plait."  The  revised  name  of  this  species  h  Antlnirium 
scan  dens. 

Pouk  (Bmm.).     Butea  frondosa. 

Pouzolzia  spp. 

The  plants  of  this  genus  of  Vrticacew  are  allied  to  the  Bochmcrias,  and  are  natives 
of  the  Tropics  of  both  hemispheres.  P.  pcntandra,  P.  vimhua,  and  I',  indica  yield  use- 
ful cordage  fibers  in  India. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  275 

Prairie  grass  (see  Spartina  cynosuroidoi:  also  Sporobolus  cryptindus). 

Prickly  pear  (see  Opuntia). 

Prionium  palmita.     The  Palmet,  or  Palmite. 

Endogen.     Ji(vcaci(e. 

Habitat. — South  Africa,  where  it  grows  in  tlie  beds  of  rivers,  often  choking  the 
stream.  It  resembles  in  appearance  a  bromeliaceous  plant,  with  its  trunk  5  to  10 
feet  in  length  and  its  tuft  of  sword-shaped  leaves. 

Stkuctural  Fiber. — "The  leaf  sheaths  contain  a  network  of  strong,  black  iiber, 
suitable  for  brush  making,  or,  when  curled,  as  a  substitute  for  horsehair.  The  leaves 
themselves  are  useful  for  plaiting  and  thatching,  and  also  yield  a  very  good  fiber." 
(.1.  Smifh.)  Its  leaves  are  used  for  making  hats,  liaskets,  etc.,  and  the  fiber  might 
be  employed  in  textile  uses,  such  as  for  cordage,  brushes,  and  upholstery. 

Prosopis  pubescens.     Screw  Bean. 

Exogen.     Lcyuminosw.     A  bushy  shrub. 

This  species  abounds  in  the  southwestern  United  States  and  Mexico.  Representa- 
tives of  the  genus  are  also  found  on  the  plains  of  Buenos  Ayres  and  Patagonia,  known 
as  IietorgiiiUo. 

The  pods  of  this  species  are  twisted  like  a  corkscrew.  The  fruit  or  l>ean  is  employed 
largely  for  food  by  the  Indians  .along  the  Colorado  Kiver.  in  Arizona,  and  l)y  the  Utahs, 
who  collect  large  cpiantities  to  store  for  winter  food.  (Sec  Ann.  Rei)t.  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag., 
1870,  p.  412.) 

Bast  Fibei;. — The  bark  of  this  plant,  torn  off  in  strips,  is  used  by  the  Mohave 
Indians  of  Arizona  for  binding  pottery.  Better  prepared,  it  would  make  a  fair  cord- 
age liber,  although  when  produced  in  the  form  of  ribbons,  as  in  the  siiecimens  col- 
lected by  Dr.  E.  Palmer,  it  can  only  be  regarded  as  a  tie  material. 

Pseudo-fibers  (see  Classification  of  Fibers,  ]).  25). 
Pteris  decipiens  (see  note  under  Adiantitnt). 
Pterocarpus  santalinus. 

Exogen.     Le(jHminus<v.     A  large  tree. 

There  are  15  or  more  species  in  the  genus,  and  all  are  plants  of  large  size,  scattered 
over  tropical  Asia,  Africa,  and  America.  The  plant  yields  a  deep  red  dye,  known  to 
commerce  as  "red  sanders,"  large  quantities  of  which  are  exported  from  India 
annually.  Gum  kino  is  obtained  from  two  species  of  i'/eroca>7J(ts,  one  growing  in 
India  and  the  other  in  Africa.     Some  of  the  barks  are  also  used  for  tanning. 

Bast  Fiber. — The  fiber  is  reddish  in  color,  composed  of  quite  fine  filaments  of 
moderate  strength.  From  the  size  and  appearance  of  this  specimen,  which  is  quite 
old,  I  judge  it  has  only  been  extracted  experimentally.  A  twisted  cord  of  the  fiber, 
about  the  size  of  common  manila-paper  twine,  would^show  about  the  same  tenacity. 
It  would  doubtless  make  a  good  paper  stock,  if  it  could  be  cheaply  exfracted  and  in 
large  quantities. 

Pua  hemp  (lud.).     Mnoutia  pnya. 

Pueraria  thunbergiana.     Ko  Hemp. 

Exogen.     Leguminosw.     A  twining  plant. 

Habitat. — China  and  .Japan. 

Bast  Fiber. — Dr.  Morris  states  that  the  fiber  of  this  trailing  vine,  long  known  in 
China  and  .Tapan,  is  obtained  from  the  succulent  green  stems,  and  is  used,  but  less 
than  formerly,  for  summer  clothing.  It  is  said  to  be  more  durable  than  China  grass 
cloth. 


276  USEFUL    FIBER    PLAKTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

Fulipunta  (Peru).     See  Phytelephas. 

Fulu  (Hawaii).     See  Cibotium  spp.     See  under  Woochvardia. 

Punj  (Intl.).     Sterculia  guttata. 

Puta  and  Puttiya  (N.  W.  Prov.  lud.).     See  Kydia. 

Quahitl  (Yuc,  Maya)  ==  a  tree. 

Quasb  (Arab.).     Bamhusa  arundinacea. 

Queensland  hemp.     Mda  rhomhifoUa. 

Queimora  (Braz.).     Gouratari. 

Quimbombo.     Spanish  for  Hibiscus  eftculenfus. 

Raffia. 

The  uiinie  giveu  to  :i  surface  fiber  which  is  2)ro(lu(e<l  Wy  stripping  the  epidermis  of 
the  leaves  of  species  of  palms  of  the  genus  RapMa,  which  see.  Epidermal  strijis 
similar  to  rafiBa  may  also  be  produced  from  the  leaves  of  many  other  species  of  palm 
such  as  Cocos  nucifera,  the  cocoanut,  Uorassna,  the  I'almyra  palm,  etc.,  specimens  of 
which  are  preserved  in  economic  museums. 

Ragi  (Ind.).     Elennine  coracana. 

Rag^veed.     Ambrosia  trifida. 

Rain-coats,  Fiber  for.   Ja,]}.,Oryzasafiva;  China,  Trachycarp  us  excels  us. 

Raiz  de  Zacaton  (Mex.).     Epicampes  macroura. 

Rajmahal  hemp  (Ind.).    See  Marsdenia. 

Rameta  bast  (see  Lasiosiphon  eriocephalus). 

Rami  (Peru).     Boehmeria. 

Rami-tsjina  (^lalay).     See  (Uirchorus. 

Ramie  and  Ramee.     Boehmeria  tenacissima.     See  also  B.  nivea. 

Ramio  (Span.).     Pamie,  or  species  of  Boehmeria. 

Ran  or  Ban-bhendi  (Bomb.).     Malachra  capitata. 

Ran-she-\vra  (Bomb.).     Sesbania. 

Raphia  ruffia.     Kaffia  Palm. 

Endogen.     ruhinc. 

There  are  several  species  of  this  geuus,  natives  of  Africa,  where  they  abound  in 
low,  swamjiy  lands  upon  river  banks  or  near  the  sea  ujion  both  the  east  and  west 
coasts.  One  species,  however,  is  found  in  similar  situations  in  Brazil.  They  produce 
gigantic  pinnate  leaves  often  50  feet  in  length,  trees  frequently  being  found  70  feet 
in  height.  The  immense  fruit  spikes  often  weigh  200  or  300  pounds,  and  bear  a  large 
number  of  one-seeded  fruits  larger  than  eggs.  The  genus  is  a  prominent  one,  as  it 
contains  three  species  yielding  important  commercial  fibers. 

E.  ruffia  is  a  Mailagascar  species,  growing  abundantly  on  the  coast  and  inland, 
reaching  an  altitude  of  4,000  feet.  The  leaves  average  25  feet  in  length  and  are  made 
up  of  a  series  of  long  grass-like  pinnate  fronds.     (See  fig.  92.) 

The  revised  name  of  this  species  is  li.  pcdimculata. 

Surface  Fiber. — This  fiber  is  derived  from  the  cuticle  of  the  leaves,  whicJi  are 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE. 


277 


taken  befon^  fully  expanded  and  iteeled  upon  both  sides.  Tlie  thin  strips  of  librons 
material  thns  obtained  are  afterwards  divided  into  narrower  strips  by  a  kind  of 
comb,  according  to  the  pnrpose  for  whicli  tliey  are  to  be  nsed. 

It  api>ears  as  llat,  straw-colored  strips,  abont  half  to  tlireo-<iuarters  inch  wide 
and  from  3  to  4  feet  long.  It  is  caixiblo  of  being  divided  into  iine  threads.  In  Mad- 
agascar it  is  used  for  delicately  i)laited  goods,  hats,  mats  for  covering  lloors,  and 
"wrajiping  np  goods.  The  loose  ;  trips  are  extensively  nsed  in  this  country^  in  place  of 
Rnssian  bast  or  tie  bands 
by  gardeners  and  nursery- 
men. More  recently  it  has 
been  woven  into  superior 
matting,  tastefully  col- 
ored, and  used  instead  of 
tapestry  for  covering 
walls  in  London  houses. 
Eaiha  usually  reaches  this 
country  (England)  loose- 
ly plaited  in  hanks  weigh- 
ing from  11  to  3  pounds 
each.  These  are  made  up 
into  bales  weighing  1^  to 
5J  hundredweight.  The 
preparation  of  raftia  is  one 
of  the  most  extensive  in- 
dustries in  Madagascar, 
The  men  cut  the  palm 
k'aves  in  the  forests  and 
bring  them  home  for  the 
women  to  complete  the 
work.  The  liber  is  cured 
the  same  day  i  t  is  stripped. 
(Dr.  2Torns.) 

The  Kew  Mus.  contains 
examples  of  coarse  cloth 
made  by  the  natives  of  the 
ujiper  Congo.  This  cloth 
is  the  universal  clothing 
of  the  Malagasy  slaves. 
The  fiber  is  exported  to  the  United  States  in  the  hanks  described  above,  its  only 
use  being  as  a  tie  material  in  nurseries,  etc, 

Raphia  taedigera.     The  Jupati  Palm. 

F(»uud  on  the  banks  of  the  lower  Amazon  and  Para  rivers  in  Brazil,  but  unknown 
in  the  interior.  The  cylindrical  leiifstalks,  often  12  feet  or  more  in  length,  are  em- 
ployed by  the  natives  for  walls  or  partitions  of  their  houses,  and  used  in  other 
waj-8. 

Fiber. — The  fiber  is  similar  in  every  respect  to  the  preceding  and  is  useil  for  the 
same  purposes,  some  of  the  strips  being  exported  to  England  for  use  as  tie  mate- 
rial, especially  in  hop  fields.  Among  its  native  nses  may  bo  mentioned  cordage  and 
fishing  nets. 

This  species  is  now  regarded  by  botanists  as  identical  with  the  next. 

Raphia  vinifera.     Bamboo   Palm. 

Common  and  native  names.— Wine   palm  of  West  Africa.      (The  Palm)   Lji- 
ofjura,  Eriko,  and  Akpako,  Yorubaland;  (the  fiber)  Ii/o. 
Abundant  on  the  borders  of  rivers  intersecting  tlie   countries  near  the  sea,   in 


Fig.  92. — Tlie  llaftia  palm,  lUiphia  ruffia. 


278 


USEFUL  FIBEE  PLANTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


the  kingdoms  of  Owarc  and  P.euin,  west  Africa.  The  tree  is  of  medium  height,  the 
Jcaves  measuring  6  or  7  feet  in  length.  The  stems  are  used  for  the  frameworlc  of 
native  dwellings,  and  the  leaves,  bound  with  lines,  are  used  fur  thatching.  From 
the  trunk  an  intoxicating  beverage  called  Bourdon  is  obtained. 

The  governor  of  Lagos,  in  a  report  to  the  Kew  authorities  in  1891,  states  that  it 
would  be  impossible  to  calculate  the  area  occupied  by  these  forests,  but  it  may  be 
accepted  "without  doubt  that  they  extend  throughout  the  length  of  the  colony, 
and  to  a  distance  of  at  least  15  miles  from  the  seacoast,  and  that  over  this  area  of 
about  5,000  square  miles  they  form  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  vegetation,  next 
only  in  numbers  to  the  oil  palm  and  the  mangrove."     (See  tig.  93.) 

Structukal  Fibeu. — This  is  the  "African  bass"  of  commerce.  It  is  in  appear- 
ance a  stiff  and  wiry  liber,  varying 
in  color  from  dark  brown  to  light 
red,  dependent  for  its  shades  on 
duration  of  soaking.  It  is  most 
readily  obtained  in  lengths  of  from 
3  to  4  feet,  beyond  which  length  it 
is  inconvenient  to  pack  and  diffi- 
cult to  procure  without  injury  to 
thetree.  ludiameter itvaries from 
one-sixteenth  to  one-thirtietli  of 
an  inch,  the  latter  of  which  may  be 
accepted  as  the  limit  of  linencss  to 
be  admitted  in  a  commercial  sam- 
ple for  the  European  markf't. 

The  liber  is  obtained  from  the 
fibrous  sheathing  at  the  base  of 
the  petioles,  in  lengths  of  3  to  4 
feet.  It  has  been  a  regular  article 
of  commcrcesincc  1890,  though  the 
prices  are  eomowhat  lower  than 
those  quoted  for  Para  and  Hahia 
piassaba,  which  are  employed  for 
the  same  uses,  that  is,  for  hard 
brushes.  Epidermal  strijis  are 
also  secured  from  the  leaves  of  this 
species,  though  shipments  of  the 
fiber  made  in  18D5  Avere  reported 
upon  as  badly  prepared,  the  strips 
being  too  short,  and  curled  up, 
resembling  fine  twine. 

Everybody  iu  the  colony  is  aware 
of  the  manifold  uses  of  the  Ilaphia 
palm;  how,  from  its  leaves,  hats, 
cloth,  and  cordage  are  made;  from 
its  leaf  stems,  rafters,  fences,  and  walls,  and  from  its  crown  of  young  unopened  leaves 
palm  wine  of  excellent  quality.  Of  one  part  only  the  use  seemsnot  generally  known, 
and  it  would  appear  that  this  particular  portion  of  the  tree,  though  hitherto  treated  as 
useless,  is  in  reality  of  nu)re  value  than  all  the  rest.  When  the  "Bamboo"  cutter 
clears  away  the  leaves  from  the  lower  stem  of  the  palms  the  trees  present  a  very  ragged 
and  uneven  appearance  owing  to  the  practice  of  leaving  a  portion  of  the  leafstalk 
adhering  to  the  parent  stem.  These  base  stalks  i>artially  incase  the  bole  of  the  tree 
and  project  upward  and  outward  forming  the  scaly  covering  which  gives  so  strange 
an  appearance  to  a  grove  of  Baphia  palms.  From  these  stumps  of  the  leafstalks  the 
native  fishing  lines  arc  made.  The  fiber  is  extracted  by  a  process  of  soaking  and 
scraping,  which  is  exceedingly  sim-ple  and  is  fully  understood  by  every  bamboo  cut- 


Fio.  9J. — Tlic  Jupali  pului,  L'aplda  vinifcra. 


DESCniPTIVE    rATALOOITE. 


270 


ter  and  line  maker.  It  is  this  liber  wliicli  is  known  in  tlie  Enropcan  market  as 
"African  bass,"  ami  there  is  no  apparent  reason  why,  with  a  i>opulation  who  are  in 
the  habit  of  prepaiing  it,  and  a  source  of  supply  which  may  be  regarded  as  practi- 
cally imlin;ited,  we  should  not  be  able  to  compete  on  even  terms  with  the  sources  of 
supply  which  at  j)resent  monopolize  the  market.  {Alfred  Moloinj,  f/orcrnnr  of  Lngos.) 
Othkr  SI'KCIES. — R.  liooleri  is  the  I'kut  of  Old  Calabar,  where  it  is  cultivated  as  a 
wine  palm.  The  natives  also  manufacture  cloth  from  the  eijidcrmis  of  the  leaflets. 
Oa  the  Sherboro,  in  Sierra  Leone,  they  make  hammocks  from  it,  as  well  as  all  sorts 
of  basket  work,  mats,  etc.  This  is  one  of  the  largest  of  the  Baphlan,  the  whole  plant 
often  attaininj^  a  height  of  70  feet.  The  fronds  are  40  feet  long,  with  leatlets  1  to  5 
feet  long.     If  in  other  respects  suitable,  this  should  yield  Baffin  ilber  as  long  as  the 


Tig.  94.— a  plant  of  Muiciiala. 

best  from  Madagascar.  (Kew  Bull.,  1895.)  B.  ivelwitschii  is  a  new  species  from 
Angola.  The  natives  manufacture  the  epidermis  from  the  leadets  into  cloths,  etc. 
B.  textilis,  a  closely  allied  species,  also  yields  textile  filaments. 

Rat  (Ceyl.)  =  red. 

Rataroa.     New  Zealand  flax.     See  Phormiiini. 
Rattan  cane  (Ceyl.).     See  Calamus  rotang. 
Ravenala  guyanensis. 

Endogen.     Mnnacco'.     Giant  wild  plantain.     (Fig.  04.) 
Known  by  the  French  as  Traveler's  tree,  as  it  stores  uj)  water  in  the  large  cnp-llke 


280  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

sheatbs  of  the  leafstalks.  Found  in  Britisli  Guiana  and  a  second  species,  Il.mada- 
gascdrleiisig,  in  Madagascar,  the  gigantic  leaves  l>eiug  used  hy  the  natives  of  hoth 
countries  as  athatch  material.  "The  blades  of  the  leaves  are  oldong  in  form  and  are 
larger  in  size  than  those  of  any  known  plant  except  the  Victoria  regia."   {Dr.  Masters.) 

Ra"waye  (W.  Afr.).     CocMospermum  tinctorium. 

Razor  strop,  fibrous. 

In  Florida  and  the  West  Indies  a  very  serviceable  razor  stro])  is  made  from  the 
soft  inner  part  of  the  Hower  stalks  of  "poling"  species  of  Agave.  They  are  about 
15  inches  in  length  and  IJ  inches  square,  one  end  being  made  round  for  a  handle. 
See  also  Forties  fomcntarius. 

*  Specimeii. — Mus.  K.  S.  Dep.  Ag.,  from  Jgave  sisalana. 

Red  mulberry.     Monis  riihra. 

Red  silk  cotton.     Ilomhax  muluhnricnm. 

Reed  mace.     Typha  awiuntifoUa. 

Reed,  Scriptural  (see  Arumlo  donax). 

Retama  (Peru).     Spartiumjuneeum, 

Rhea  (Ind.).     See  Boehmeria  tenacissima. 

Rhus  trilobata.    Aromatic  SuMAr,  or  SqI'Aw  Berry. 

Exogen.     Jnaeardiacete.     A  shrub,  5  to  8  feet. 

Xative  IxDiAX  NAME. — Hopi  or  Moqul,  Ciibi;  from  Ciikii,  pungent,  alluding  to 
its  acid  berries,  which  are  called  sirwi})8i;  a  syncopated  form  of  Ciibisiadfa ; 
Ciibi,  its  seeds.     (Feivkes.) 

Found  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  at  least  as  far  north  as  C(dorado,  in  California, 
and  southward  to  Mexico.  "The  dry  shrub  is  one  of  the  four  prescribed  fuels  for 
the  kivas.  The  buds  are  regarded  as  medicinal,  and  the  seeds  are  eagerly  eaten  by 
young  people.  Its  twigs  are  used  for  many  ceremonial  jturposes,  and  also  for  coarse 
basketry."     (Fewkes.) 

In  T'tah,  Arizona,  southern  California,  and  New  Mexico  the  Indians  depend  solely 
upon  this  2)lant  for  material  out  of  which  to  make  their  baskets.  It  is  far  more 
durable  and  tougher  than  the  willow,  which  is  not  used  by  these  Indians.  The  mode 
of  preparation  is  as  follows:  The  twigs  are  soaked  in  water  to  soften  them,  and  to 
loosen  the  bark,  which  is  scraped  oft"  by  the  females.  The  twigs  are  then  split  by 
the  use  of  the  mouth  and  both  hands.  Their  baskets  are  built  up  by  a  succession 
of  small  rolls  of  grass  stems  over  which  these  twigs  are  firmly  and  closely  bound, 
A  bone  awl  is  used  to  make  the  holes  under  the  rims  of  grass  for  the  split  twigs. 
Baskets  thus  made  are  very  durable,  will  hold  water,  and  are  often  vised  to  cook  in, 
hot  stones  being  dropped  in  from  time  to  time  until  the  food  is  doJie.  ( Dr.  E.  Palmer, 
Am.  Nat.  1878. ) 

Ribbon-wood  (of  Otago)  (New  Zea.).     See  Hoheria. 

Rice, 

Chinese paper  (see  Fatsia  papyrifera);  — —  straw,   for  straw  jilait  i^see 

Oryza);  wild (see  Zizania  aqnatica). 

Ricinus  communis.     Castor  Oil  Plant. 

Common  names. — Falma  Christi,  Huile  dc  Castor  (the  oil)  (Fr.);  Kiki  (Egypt); 
j  P'i-ma  (China);  Etidaru  (Ceyl.);  Kyeksii  (Burm.);  Khirvd  (Arab.);   Bedanjir 

(Pers.),  and  many  others. 
.  Supposed  to  be  a  native  of  Africa,  from  whence  the  plant  was  introduced  into 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  2<S1 

India,  imd  hns  spread  to   many  ]»aits  of  tlic  world.     Cultivated  largely  for  its  oil 
derived  from  tlio  seeds,     (irowu  in  ilie  United  .States  as  an  oruanieutal  jdant. 

Woody  Fiber.  -  I  can  not  learn  that  this  j)lant  has  ever  hcen  used  for  liber  save 
in  India.  "While  Jlicinus  communis  does  not  itself  yield  fiber,  it  is  largely  enltivated 
in  Assam  to  feed  the  eri  silkworm.  An  excellent  paper  pulp  is,  however,  said  to  be 
made  from  the  stems  with  their  bark,  the  latter  containing  a  liber  though  not  of  suf- 
licient  value  to  justify  its  separation.  As  some  500  mauuds  of  stems  are  obtained 
from  an  acre  of  land,  it  seems  ])robable  that  where  grown  in  the  vicinity  of  paper 
mills  it  would  be  more  protitablo  to  dispose  of  the  stems  to  the  paper  maker  than  to 
>ise  them  as  fuel  or  thatching  as  is  the  present  custom."     (Die.  Ec.  Prod.  lud.) 

Robinia  pseudacacia. 

Exogen.  Letjuiiiinosa'.  A  tree. 
An  ornamental  tree  with  hard  wood,  known  as  the  false  acacia,  or  North  American 
locust.  Native  of  the  Southern  United  States.  Savorgnan  mentions  that  liber  has 
been  produced  from  it,  though  it  can  hardly  he  enumerated  as  a  useful  til>er  species. 
Bernardin,  however,  gives  the  species  place  in  the  list  of  550  useful  libers,  for  manu- 
facturing stuffs  and  paper. 

Rocoii  (see  liiia  oreJlana), 

Rooee  Ru  and  Rui  (Iiid.).     Gossypium  lierhaceum. 

Rourea  santaloides.     The  Kirindi-wel  of  Ceylon. 

A  creejjer,  belonging  to  the  family  Connaracca'.  Allied  to  the  bean  family.  The 
genus  comprises  40  or  more  species,  distributed  over  tro})ical  Asia,  though  represent, 
atives  are  found  in  Africa  and  America.  They  are  trees  and  shrubs,  a  few  of  them- 
as  7i.  santaloides,  being  scandent. 

Woody  Fibeij. — The  twining  stems  of  this  species  are  used  in  Ceylon  for  a  pow- 
erful cordage,  which  is  produced  hy  twisting  them  together.  These  ropes  are 
employed  in  constructing  strong  fences  or  stockades;  and  in  jxgriculture  "where 
fascines  have  to  he  erected  for  the  support  of  temporary  earthwork,  etc."  The 
cordage  is  also  used  for  tethering  cattle. 

"Specimens  were  exhibited  in  the  Ceylon  court,  W.  C.  E.,  189.3. 

Rozelle  hemp.     HibiscMf^  salxho-ifa. 
Rusa  grass  (see  Andropixjon  schoenanthus). 
Rush. 

The  different  species  of  rushes  are  used  in  the  mnuufacture  of  mats,  mattings, 
rough  cordage,  and  for  paper  stock.  Some  of  the  rushes  described  in  tliis  work  will 
lie  found  under  Cyjxriis.     See  also  Juncus. 

Rye  straw  (see  Hccale). 

Sabal  palmetto.     The  Cabbage  Palmetto  of  Florida. 

Endogen.     I'almw.     A  tall  palm,  25  to  50  feet. 

One  of  the  most  northerly  palms.  Found  in  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  and  Florida, 
in  the  latter  State  often  appearing  in  large  groves.  The  species  of  Sabal  are  all 
natives  of  tropical  America,  chiefly  the  West  Indies,  and  the  southern  United  States. 
The  trunks  of  old  examples  of  S.  pahnetlo  are  smooth,  hut  the  young  trees  are  cov- 
ered with  a  lattice  of  the  dead  leafstalks,  arranged  with  geometrical  regularity. 
They  are  used  for  piles,  and  are  said  to  be  more  enduring  than  the  ordinary  timber 
species  for  this  purpose.  Seminole  Indian  name,  Tah-lah-lciil-l^ee  Fig.  1,  PI.  X,  is 
a  group  of  cabbage  palmetto  at  Jupiter  Inlet,  Florida. 

Structural  Fiber. — The  manufacture  of  brush  liber  from  the  cabbage  jialmetto 


282         USEFUL  FIBER  PLANTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 

forms  a  considerable  industry  in  Florida,  this  material  beinjjf  produced  in  tLe  works 
located  at  Jacksonville.  The  source  of  the  liber  is  tbe  "boots,'  or  spathes  of  the 
leaf  stems,  which  surround  the  "bud,"  or  cabbage,  and  in  securing  these  buds,  with 
the  leaf  stems,  the  tree  is  sacrificed.  The  buds  are  cut  out  in  the  localities  to  the 
southward,  where  large  groves  are  to  be  found,  and  are  shipped  to  the  central  fac- 
tory. Here  they  are  steamed,  to  soften  and  loosen  the  mass,  when  the  boots  are 
removed  and  are  immediately  crushed  by  passing  under  a  scries  of  stamps  similar  to 
the  device  formerly  employed  in  crushing  gold  ore  in  C(dorado.  The  softened  and 
crushed  boots  are  then  subjected  to  an  automatic  combing  machine,  which  takes  out 
the  soft  liber,  leaving  about  25  per  cent  of  the  original  fibrous  material,  in  the  form 
of  stiff  reddish  fibers,  considerably  finer  than  ])iassaba,  and  averaging  15  to  18  inches 
in  length.  Tliese  fibers  are  then  sorted,  or  "drafted,"  and  are  made  up  in  bundles 
of  dift'ereut  lengths,  to  be  oiled  and  polished.  The  ends  are  then  cut  sijuare,  and  tlie 
fiber,  in  the  form  of  small  bundles,  is  ready  for  the  brush  maker.  The  different 
lengths  are  known  as  "  long  draft,"  "  sliort  draft,"  etc.  The  brushes  produced  are 
made  in  many  forms  and  are  useful  for  many  ])urposes. 

The  soft  or  tangled  fiber  has  not  been  largely  utilized,  otherwise  than  to  strew  over 
the  streets  of  Jack.sonville,  possibly  as  a  kind  of  "sand-bind"  material.  It  has  been 
used  to  slight  extent  as  the  filirons  portion  of  artificial  board,  though  not  to  the 
extent  of  making  it  an  industry.  It  might  be  used  as  a  cheap  substitute  for  coir.' 
The  selected  leaves  of  the  cabbage  ])almctto  are  capable  of  manufacture  into  hats 
for  summer  wear,  of  great  beauty  and  finish.  In  the  bazaars  of  Florida  cities  that  are 
winter  resorts  ladies'  hats  made  of  this  material  arc  regularly  sold,  and  men's  hats 
are  also  made  from  this  species.  For  hat  manufacture  the  leaves  are  whitened  by 
brushing  with  a  solution  of  oxalic  acid  once  or  twice,  alter  which  they  are  bleached 
by  exposing  to  the  fumes  of  burning  sulphur.  The  leaves  are  also  plaited  into  orna- 
mental basket  work,  and  are  also  used,  when  torn  into  strips,  in  the  manufacture  of 
fly  brushes,  which  are  regularly  sold  in  the  local  bazaars  and  house-furnishing  estab- 
lishments. 

The  bud,  or  "cabbage,"  of  5.  paJmctto  is  prized  by  the  Seminole  Indians  as  an  article 
of  food;  after  cutting  out  and  trimming  the  bud  it  is  boiled.  .S'.  adansoni  is  the 
dwarf  jialm  of  Georgia  and  Florida.  The  stem  is  short  or  entirely  under  ground. 
Its  leaves  are  used  for  plaiting  into  hats.  S.  blaclbnrniaiium  is  known  as  the  Ber- 
muda palm,  and  its  leaves  are  manufactured  into  hats,  baskets,  fans,  and  other  useful 
articles.  S.  vicxicanum  is  a  Mexican  species,  which  is  said  to  be  cultivated.  Like  the 
preceding  species  its  leaves  are  utilized,  being  made  into  mats  and  other  articles. 
S.  nmhracnlif mtm,  the  imlmetto  royal,  is  a  form  ofS.  hhtckhurnianum,  which  is  utilized 
in  Jamaica,  the  outside  portions  of  the  trunk  being  employed  for  boarding  up  native 
huts  and  forming  partitions.  Savorguan  states  that  hats  and  sandals  are  made  from 
this  palm,  the  fiber  being  very  strong  and  indestrnctible.  See  also  Screnoa,  the  saw 
palmetto. 

*  Specimens  of  Sabal  palmetto  brush  fiber  in  series,  and  various  articles  from  the 
leaves,  iire  preserved  in  the  Mus.  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag. ;  the  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus.,  and  the  Field 
Col.  Mus. 

Saccharum  officinarum.    Sugar  Cane. 

This  species  belongs  to  a  genus  of  grasses  of  the  ixihe  Andropogonew.  Over  60 
species  have  been  described,  covering  a  wide  geographical  range,  though  for  the 
most  part  natives  of  tropical  and  subtropical  countries.  S.  officinarum  was  probably 
first  cultivated  in  India,  although  its  varieties  are  now  spread  over  the  world.  It 
has  been  cultivated  in  tropical  America  since  1610. 

Structural  Fiber. — The  fiber  from  this  species  is  derived  from  the  refuse  after 
the  cane  has  passed  through  the  crushing  mills.  In  India  it  was  recommended  as  a 
useful  paper  material  by  Liotard.  A  further  use  in  manufacture  in  a  small  way, 
according  to  the  Die.  Ec.  Prod.  Ind..  Vol.  VI,  pt.  2,  is  for  well  ropes,  and  on  the 
Chenab  it  is  twisted  into  rough  cordage  used  for  tying  logs  into  rafts.    The  destruc- 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  283 

tion  of  the  fiber  is  one  of  the  lensons  why  tlio  natives  of  niniiy  ports  of  India  ohieet 
to  the  improved  iron  rollers  now  very  jieuerally  employed  in  the  expression  of  tiie 
juice.     It  is  noted  that  the  dried  material  is  not  used  as  fuel  or  manure. 

Kefer  also  to  "  Bagasse  "  in  the  alphabetical  index,  where  this  subject  is  furtlier 
treated. 

*  Specimens  of  Bagasse,  Mus.  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag. 

Saccharum  sara. 

Syn.  .S'.  riliaye  and  N.  iniinja. 

Native  names. — Sarapai,  Sarpatta,  and  Miivja  (Hind.);  Sara  (HLiid  and  Beng). 

Northwest  Provinces  of  India,  especially  the  Panjstb,  where  it  is  sometimes  planted 
as  a  boundary  hedge. 

Structural  Fiber.— The  Munj,  or  fiber,  from  this  species  is  much  valued  on  account 
of  its  strength,  elasticity,  and  power  of  resisting  moisture,  and  is  extensively  employed 
in  t\w  manufacture  of  rope,  string,  mats,  baskets,  and  paper.  Mm\j  matting  is  said 
to  be  proof  against  the  attack  of  white  ants,  *  *  "*  iSirfci  is  the  light  thatch  used 
in  covering  carts  in  wet  weather,  and  is  composed  of  the  /«/,  or  upper  portion,  of  the 
fiowering  st(>m;  the  lower  and  thicker  parts,  called  kdna,  are  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  chairs,  tables,  baskets,  and  screens;  also  for  roofing,  for  lining  Kachha  wells, 
and  lor  covering  stores  or  gi'ain.     (Oeorf/e  Watt.) 

The  Kew  Mus.  collection  contains  many  interesting  objects  made  from  the  fibrous 
]tortions  of  this  and  other  species  of  Saccharum.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned 
ropes  and  twines,  the  fil)er  being  valued  for  such  uses  on  account  of  its  elasticity, 
strength,  and  power  of  resisting  moisture.  Mats  are  also  shown,  including  a  Sirkar 
mat  from  Calcutta;  also  a  necklace  made  from  the  straw,  and  half  stufi'  for  paper, 
made  from  the  culms. 

S.  spontaneum  is  another  Indian  species  that  is  employed  for  cordage,  while  S.fus- 
cum  is  recorded  as  a  Himalayan  species,  known  in  Hindoo  as  Killut  or  Tilliik,  and 
Pati-khort  in  Bengal.  Of  this  species,  George  Watt  states  that  the  culms  are  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  pens,  screens,  and  light  fences,  the  leaves  and  reeds  for  thatch, 
and  the  leaf-sheaths,  like  those  of  most  wild  species  of  the  genus,  may  be  used  to 
supply  the  fiber  from  which  the  sacrificial  thread'is  i>repared. 

Saci,  Sacci,  or  Sacqui= White  agave. 

The  form  of  sisal  hemp  which  has  its  center  of  production  in  the  northwestern 
portion,  or  the  district  of  Meriila  —Ar/are  rUjlda  clongata.  This  form  fui'nishes  the 
principal  bulk  of  the  sisal  hemp  exported  from  Yucatan.     See  also  Yaxci. 

Safed-babul  and  Safed  kikar  (Beng.  and  Hind.).    Acaciq  leucophlwa. 
Safed-semal  (Hind.).     Uriodendron  anfracUiosum. 
Sago  palm.      Metroxylon  sagu. 

Sago  is  also  derived  from  Cari/ota  iircns,  ritocnix  farinifcra,  Corypha  gchaiiga,  and 
other  palms  that  are  valued  for  their  fiber. 

Sagu  (Peru).     Areca  cutecliu. 
Sala  (It.).     See  Carex  paludosa. 
Sala  minore  (It.).     Typha  angustifolia. 
Salacia  diandi'a. 

A  genus  of  Hippocralcacea%  containing  some  60  or  more  tropical  species,  for  the  most 
l)art  abounding  in  India  and  the  Asiatic  islands,  though  found  in  other  parts  of  the 
world.  They  are  erect  or  trailing  evergreen  shrubs,  and  are  sometimes  cultivated  in 
greenhouses.  S.  diandra  is  an  East  Indian  species  said  to  have  been  employed  for 
the  native  manufacture  of  ropes  and  cordage  of  great  strength. 


284  USEFUL    FIBER   PLANTS    OF   THE    WORLD. 

Salcio. 

This  word,  used  with  affixes,  forms  the  common  Italian  names  of  different  species 

of. osiers,  or  willows,  used  in  the  industrial  economy.     da  rinclii  is  the  osier, 

or  water  willow ;  rifrice,  the  brittle  willow  ;  riminaU,  the  pliant  willow  ; 

legare,  the  binding  willow,  and  many  others.     >See  Salix. 

Salix  spp. 

Exogens.     Salicacea^     Willow  trees. 

The  willow  family  is  so  well  known  that  a  description  of  the  trees  is  unnecessary. 
There  are  many  sjiecies,  distributed  over  the  northern  hemisphere,  and  they  are 
more  nnmeroiis  in  the  Old  World  than  the  New. 

Bast   Fibek. — While  tbe  largest  use   of  the  willow  is   in   the   manufacture   of 
basketry,  etc.,  some  of  the  western  Indians  make  use  of  willow  bark,  specimens 
of  which  are  exhibited  in  the  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus.     Dr.  Palmer  states  in  the  American 
Naturalist  ibr  October,  187><,  that  the  willow  trees  along  the  Colorado  Kiver,  Arizona, 
yield  abundance  of  long,  soft  bast,  from  which  the  Indians  on  this  stream  make 
ropes  and  twine  for  domestic  purposes,  as  well  as  sandals  and  mats.     The  females  Vi'^'J 
generally  dress  scantily,  only  that  part  of  the  body  from  the  waste  to  the  knees  is        ^ 
hidden  from  view.     This  custom  is  observed  by  most  of  the  Indian  females  living  "*  "-' 
along  the  Colorado  River.     They  strip  off  the  bark  from  these  trees  and  bury  it  in 
blue  mud  for  a  few  days,  after  which  it  is  taken  out,  washed  clean,  and  dried.     It  is 
now  soft,  jdiable,  and  easily  handled.     Being  cut  into  recinisite  lengths,  they  are 
fastened  very  thickly  to  a  belt  of  the  wearer. 

Woody  Fiuer. — Several  si»ecit'8  of  Sulix,  more  commonly  known  as  osiers,  are 
employed  in  the  manufacture  of  willow  ware,  which  includes  baskets,  furniture, 
perambulators,  ami  a  varicjty  of  other  useful  articles.  While  this  manufacture  is 
more  largely  carried  on  in  lOuropean  countries,  the  twigs  of  a  few  of  our  own  species, 
are  so  employed  in  this  country,  such  as  Salir  pnrintna,  the  rose,  or  whii)Cord  wil- 
low, which  ismentif>ned  in  Gray's  Manual,  sixth  edition,  as  "growing  in  low  grounds, 
and  cultivated  for  basket  rods."'  Other  sjiecies  are  doubtless  employed  occasionally, 
or  in  small  local  industries. 

There  is  hardly  a  tribe  of  Indians  in  North  America  that  is  not  familiar  with  the 
rude  plaiting  or  weaving  of  withes,  reeds,  grasses,  etc.,  into  articles  of  domestic 
economy,  and  several  species  of  willow  are  employed  by  them  for  wickerwork,  such 
as  S.  cot  (lata,  S.  serieea,  S.  petiolaris  in  the  Eastern  and  Middle  States,  the  last  two  of 
real  value;  S.  hmiandra,  S.  lasiolepiit  and  S.  hirujata  in  the  Western  and  Pacific 
States.  Of  the  last  named  only  the  roots  are  used  by  the  Hooi)a  and  Klamath 
Indians. 

In  the  study  of  the  subject,  one  first  thinks  of  oziers  or  willows  as  the  ordinary 
and  proper  material,  but  it  is  well  known  that  our  willows  do  not  possess  the  soft- 
ness and  pliability  which  make  several  species  of  so  much  economic  im]>ortance  in 
Euroi)e.  Even  when  cultivated  in  this  country  these  species  become  woody  and 
hard.  From  all  the  information  within  my  reach,  1  am  led  to  believe  that  the  native 
willow  most  used  in  this  country,  at  least  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  is  ISaVix 
scssilifolia.  From  the  region  of  the  Hoopa  and  Klamath  Indians  of  northern  Cali- 
fornia and  southern  Oregon  to  that  of  the  Papagos  of  southern  Arizona,  this  plant 
furnishes  one  of  the  best  materials  for  the  warp  of  basket  work.  Young  shoots,  2  or 
3  feet  long,  are  cut  in  the  spring  or  early  8un:mer,  strip])ed  of  their  bark,  and  dried. 
They  are  soft  and  remarkably  flexible,  sometimes  (|uite  tenuous,  alnmst  filiform. 
This  species  deserves  attention  as  one  most  wortiiy  of  cultivation  for  the  production 
of  valuable  ozier.  In  order  to  keep  it  well  pruned  down  and  provoke  new  growths 
of  young,  tender  shoots,  the  Indians  of  northern  California  set  lire  to  the  woods,  an 
operation  likewise  intended  to  improve  the  hazelnut,  another  highly  esteemed  basket 
plant."     {Dr.  V.  Harard.) 

The  woody  fiber  of  S.  lasiandru  is  largely  used  with  other  materials  by  the  Pai  Utes 
and  Shoshouee  at  Ash  Meadows^  Nevada,  in  the  construction  of  pack  baskets,  water 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  285 

and  j)ot  baskets,  aud  a  kind  of  flat-bottoined  bowl,  a  few  inches  deep  and  sometiraes 
18  inches  across.  The  Panaiuiut  Indians  of  California  also  make  loosely  woven  bird 
canes  of  these  withes.  Frederick  V.  Coville  gives  the  following  interesting  account 
of  this  mannfacture  in  a  paper  on  the  Panamiut  Indians  of  California  in  the  American 
Anthropologist,  October,  1892,  which  will  serve  to  illnstrate  the  methods  employed 
by  North  American  Indians  in  the  mannfacture  of  "willow  ware"  or  baskets,  etc., 
from  withes  of  Salix  and  other  species : 

All  these  wickerwork  utensils  are  woven  by  the  squaws  at  the  cost  of  a  great  deal 
of  time,  care,  and  slvill.  The  materials  are  very  simple.  They  consist  of  the  year- 
old  shoots  of  some  species  of  toiigli  willow,  commonly  SaJix  hislandra;  the  year-old 
shoots  of  the  aromatic  sumac,  llhiis  frilobafa;  the  h>ng,  Itlack,  slender,  flexible  horns 
on  the  mature  pods  of  the  unicorn  plant,  Martynia  louisiana,  locally  known  as  devil 
horns,  and  the  long,  red  roots  of  the  tree  yucca,  Yucca  hrerifolia.  These  materials 
give  three  types  of  color — the  white  of  the  willow  and  sumac,  the  black  of  the  devil 
horns,  and  the  red  of  the  yncca  roots.  This  last  material,  although  it  has  a  strong 
fiber  and  a  pretty  red  color,  is  rarely  used,  for  it  is  too  thick  to  plat  closely  aud  the 
resulting  fabric  is  full  of  interstices.  Sumac  and  willow  are  j)repared  for  use  in  the 
same  way.  The  bark  is  removed  froni  the  fresh  shoots  Ity  biting  it  loose  at  the  end 
and  tearing  it  oft\  The  woody  portion  is  scraped  to  remove  bud  protuberances  aud 
other  inequalities  of  the  surface,  and  is  then  allowed  to  dry.  These  slender  pieces 
of  wood,  that  they  may  be  distinguished  from  the  other  elements  of  basket  materials, 
will  be  called  withes.  The  second  element  is  prepared  from  the  same  plants.  A 
S(|uaw  selects  a  fresh  shoot,  breaks  off  the  too  slender  upjter  portion,  and  bites  one 
end  so  that  it  starts  to  split  into  three  nearly  equal  parts.  Holding  one  of  these 
parts  in  her  teeth  and  one  in  either  hand,  she  pulls  them  aiiart,  guiding  the  split 
with  her  fingers  so  dexterously  that  the  whole  shoot  is  divided  into  three  equal  even 
])ortions.  Taking  one  of  these,  by  a  similar  process  she  splits  off  the  pith  and  the 
adjtTifcut  less  flexible  tissue  from  the  inner  face,  and  the  bark  from  the  outer,  leaving 
a  pliant,  strong,  flat  strip  of  young  willow  or  sumac  wood.  This  is  here  designated 
I,  strand.  Both  withes  aud  strantls  may  be  dried  and  kept  for  months  and  probably 
even  for  several  years,  l)ut  before  being  used  they  are  always  soaked  in  water.  The 
pack  baskets  and  some,  at  least,  of  the  water  baskets  are  made  of  these  strands  and 
withes.  They  begin  at  the  bottom  with  two  layers  of  withes  superimposed  and 
fastened  by  their  middles  at  right  angles.  The  free  ends  are  bent  upward,  and  in 
aud  out  l)etween  them  the  strands  are  woven,  new  withes  being  inserted  as  the  basket 
widens.  An  attempt  at  ornamentation  is  frequently  made  by  retaining  the  bark  on 
some  of  the  strands  or  by  staining  them,  and  by  slightly  varying  the  "weave."  A 
squaw  commonly  occupies  an  entire  month  constructing  one  such  basket.  The  plan 
of  the  pot  baskets  and  plates  is  very  difterent  from  that  of  the  pack  b'askets.  The 
materials  are  all  carefully  selected  aud  prepared.  They  consist  of  willow  or  sumac 
strands  like  those  described  above,  but  narrower  and  of  the  finest  quality,  similar 
black  strands  from  the  devil  h(u-ns,  aud  the  long-Jointed,  slender  stems  of  a  native 
grass,  Epicampes  ricjcns.  The  strands  of  devil  horns  arc  exceedingly  tough,  of  a  coal- 
black,  very  persistent  color,  and  attain  a  length  of  from  4  to  10  inches.  The  grass 
is  particularly  adapted  to  this  use  from  its  firm  texture  and  the  fact  that  the  portion 
above  the  uppermost  joint,  which  alone  is  used,  is  very  long,  often  18  inches.  Start- 
ing from  a  central  point  a  bundle  of  two  or  three  grass  stems  and  one  very  slender 
withe  is  sewed  by  a  willow  strand  To  th'^  part  already  finished.  The  ])rocess  is  very 
similar  to  the  crocheting  of  a  circular-lamp  mat.  At  the  ])roper  point  the  bundle  is 
drawn  more  tightly,  so  that  the  remainder  of  the  8])iral  forms  tlie  sides  of  the  basket. 
The  wall  has  the  thickness,  therefore,  of  one  of  these  bundles,  and  is  composed  of  a 
continuous  spiral  of  them.  The  willow  withe  furnishes  a  strong  hold  for  the  stitches, 
and  the  punctures  are  made  by  an  iron  awl.  When  such  an  instrument  can  not  be 
obtained  an  admirable  equivalent  is  substituted  in  the  form  of  a  stout,  horny-cactus 
spine  from  the  devil's  pincushion,  Echinocactus  pohjcvphalns,  set  in  a  head  of  hard 


286  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

pitch.  The  grass  stems,  whea  the  stitches  are  ilra\pn  tightly,  mal^e  a  perfect  ])ack- 
iug,  and  the  basket  when  linished  is  water-tight.  Curious  patterns  in  black  are 
woven  into  the  basket  by  the  occasional  substitution  of  strands  of  devil  horns  for 
those  of  Avillow. 

Osiers  for  wickerwork  are  cultivated  in  Europe  and  in  Eastern  countries,  and  the 
manufactures  from  them  are  often  large  industries.  Among  the  European  basket 
willows,  S.  triandra  is  doubtless  the  best  species  for  purposes  of  manufacture,  its 
twigs  being  light,  flexible,  and  white.  This  is  the  Vetrtce  de  cestc  of  Italy,  com- 
monly used  for  hampers,  children's  carriages,  etc.  S.  purpurea  is  said  to  be  cultivated 
in  France,  Germany,  and  England  for  ornamental  basket  work  and  fine  manufac- 
tures. S.fra(jiUs  is  a  coarser  species,  also  employed  for  baskets  and  the  like.  S. 
alba  (the  binding  willow,  ,Sa1flo  da  legare  of  the  Italians),  is  the  species  employed 
in  making  the  celebrated  charivari  chairs.  ,S'.  vimlnalia,  the  species  most  commonly 
referred  to  as  the  osier,  is  "  more  distinguished  for  the  quantity  than  the  (piality  of 
its  twigs."  It  is  also  known  as  the  water  willow.  (Dianihera  amerkana  is  also 
called  water  willow.) 

Among  the  species  of  Salix  used  for  wickerwork,  etc.,  in  Eastern  countries  are  S. 
acmophylla  for  binding;  S.  alba,  or  common  white  willow,  used  in  Kashmir  for  basket 
work ;  S.  babylouica  for  baskets,  wattles,  weirs,  fences,  etc. ;  S.  telranperma,  basket 
work;  and  >S^.  walUchiana  baskets,  the  smaller  twigs  being  used  for  toothbrushes. 

Salt  marsh  grass.     Spartinajuncca. 

Saniahuma  (Braz.).     ErUxJcndron  sainauma. 

Sambal  (Java).     See  ^l^Jschi/noitiene. 

Samoa  (Hoiii).     Yucca  h<iccata. 

Samohii  (Arg\).     Cliori.sia  sprviond. 

San,  Sana,  Sani  (Hind.).     (JroUduria  juncea. 

San  kokra  and  Sankokla  (Iiul.).     Hibiscus  (■anuahinus. 

Sanabu  (Iiid.).     Croiidarin  jniicen. 

Sansevieria.     The  Uowstking  Hemps. 

An  important  genus  of  IJliacav,  with  representatives  in  tropical  regions  of 
both  hemispheres.  They  are  found  on  the  coast  of  Guinea,  around  Ceylon,  and 
along  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  extending  to  Java  and  the  coasts  of  China.  They  are 
f^  stemless,  perennial  plants,  throwing  out  runners,  and  having  only  root  leaves,  which 
^_are  thick  and  fleshy,  and  usually  sword  or  lance  shaped,  with  sheathing  bases. 
They  flower  from  January  to  May,  and  the  plants  grow  wild  in  the  jungles.  They 
are  easily  propagated  on  almost  every  soil  from  the  slips  which  issue  in  great  abun- 
dance from  the  roots,  reipiiring  little  or  no  care,  and  not  requiring  to  be  renewed 
often,  if  at  all. 

The  best  known  species  are  S.  guincensis,  S.  roxhnnihiana,  S.  zeylanua,  S  cf/Iiudyiea, 
and  ^.  lougi flora,  the  latter  species  abounding  in  southern  Florida,  where  beautiful 
•  examples  of  its  fiber,  Gl  feet  in  length,  have  been  extracted.  S.  kirkii  is  an  African 
species,  found  on  the  east  coast,  the  liber  of  which  has  been  prepared  experimentally. 
S.  ehreuhergii  is  another  African  species  known  as  Somali-land  fil)er,  and  S,  Kulcata 
gives  a  fiber  similar  to  .S'.  cylindrica,  thoiigh  not  so  valuable.  S.  lanuf/iiwsa,  called 
Eatu-Kaptt,  is  found  on  the  Malabar  coast.  This  plant,  upon  experiment,  according 
to  Royle,  has  produced  fiber  as  fine  and  soft  as  human  hair,  and  possessing  extra- 
ordinary strength  and  tenacity.  Very  superior  examples  have  been  likened  to  raw 
silk,  and  the  firmness  of  the  fiber  "  induced  the  Rev.  J.  Garrow  to  have  it  woven 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  287 

into  clotli,  which  he  declared  was  as  line  a  piece  of  cloth  as  ho  had  ever  scon." 
Sansevieria  liber  was  formerly  considered  a  valuable  paper  stock  at  Trichinopoly, 
where  the  tow  was  used,  while  the  fiber  served  as  packing  for  steam  engines. 

Sansevieria  cylindrica.     Ife  IIemp. 

Endogen.     Liliacew.     Stcniless,  lance-leaved  plant. 

South  Africa  from  Zanzibar  to  Angola.  Dift'crs  from  other  species  of  the  genus  in 
that  the  leaves  are  cylindrical,  or  round  in  horizontal  section;  when  fullj' developed 
3  to  4  feet  long,  and  abont  an  inch  thick. 

STKUCrrUAL  Fibek. — Specimens  of  liber  i)repared  from  jdauts  growing  at  Kew 
and  8ur)mitted  to  Ide  A:  Christie,  London,  were  estimated  to  be  worth  £28  ])er  ton. 
"Except  that  it  does  not  appear  quite  as  strong,  it  is  almost  ecpial  to  .S'.  loiir/iftora." 
Samples  are  exhibited  in  the  Kew  Mus.  from  Mauritius  and  from  Sierra  Leone.  "The 
cordage  and  rope  made  of  this  plant  appear  to  the  eye  of  excellent  qualitj^,  whatever 
experience  may  prove  them  to  be."  Experiments  recently  made  with  this  cordage 
have  shown  it  to  be  the  strongest  and  best  fitted  for  deep-sea  sounding  of  any  fiber 
known:  indeed  this  is  the  less  surprising,  seeing  that  other  species  of  Sansei-ieria 
(the  well-known  S.  ze'/Janica  and  [/uineensis,  for  example)  arc  cultivated  in  almost  all 
tropical  countries  on  account  of  the  strength  and  durability  of  the  liber,  under  the 
name  of  bowstring  hemp. 

Sansevieria  gnineensis.     African  Bowstring  Hemp. 

Nati\'e  xame.  —  h'onji,  Zambesi;  the  fiber,  iToiye  hemp. 

Native  of  Guinea;  found  in  Central  America,  Abyssinia,  and  Mauritius,  distrib- 
uted to  tropical  America,  particularly  the  West  Indies.  Cultivated  in  greenhouses 
with  S.  zetjJaniva  and  other  sjiecies. 

This  is  the  best  known  form  of  i)lant  producing  bowstring  hemp,  and  is  one  of  the 
oldest  species.  It  has  hoary,  erect  lanceolate  leaves,  .3  to  4  feet  long,  3  inches  broa<l 
at  the  middle,  narrowed  gradually  to  an  acute  apex,  not  distinctly  bordered  with 
red,  copiously  mottled  on  both  sides  with  broad,  irregular  bands  of  white. 

STRrCTURAL  FiBER. — The  fiber  of  this  species  has  been  said  to  resemble  manila 
hemp,  and  it  is  applicable  for  cordage  manufacture.  Specimens  of  the  fiber  from 
Trinidad  s^ibmitted  to  Ide  &,  Christie,  London,  were  reported  upon  as  follows: 
"In  point  of  cleanness  and  softness  of  fiber  it  seems  well  prepared;  but  to  compete 
successfully  with  manila  hemp  it  would  require  to  be  of  a  better  color  and  of  equal 
if  not  superior  strength.  We  value  it  for  rope-making  purposes  at  £20  per  ton  in 
Loudon.  Another  example  of  machine  prepared  was  valued  at  £23  i)er  ton.  In  our 
experimental  trial  carried  on  at  .lamaica,  1,185  pounds  of  green  leaves  of  S.  (jintuen- 
s'ls  yielded  29  pounds  10  ounces  of  dry  fiber.  ^^ 

CULTURR  AND  TREPARATiON. — The  following  Statements  regarding-  the  growth  of  • 
this  and  allied  species  of  Sansevuria,  in  Jamaica,  are  reproduced  from  the  Kew  ISul-  " 
letin  for  May,  1887. 

In  the  first  instance  plants  may  be  set  out  at  3  feet  by  3  feet,  which,  allowing  for 
roads  and  paths,  would  give  about  3,000  to  the  acre.  If  the  soil  is  kept  well  broken 
and  moist,  the  plants  by  the  extension  of  root  suckers  will  spread  in  all  directions, 
so  that  ultimately  the  whole  ground,  with  the  exception  of  certain  paths,  which 
should  be  kept  permanently  open,  will  be  covered  with  plants.  As  regards  the  time 
which  must  elapse  between  planting  out  and  Ihe  first  yield  of  leaves  suitable  for 
fiber  there  would  appear  to  be  a  great  difierence  of  opinion.  Plants  which  I  saw  at 
St.  Thomas  at  3  years  old  were  only  just  ready  to  be  cut ;  and  Baron  Eggers,  who 
had  planted  them  and  kept  them  under  close  observation  during  the  whole  of  that 
time,  was  of  opinion  that  Sansevieria  could  not  be  depended  upon  to  yield  a  crop 
before  three  or  three  and  a  half  years. 

Refer  to  the  account  of  S.  longiflora,  the  species  common  in  Florida.' 


288  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

Sansevieria  kirkii.     Pangane  Hemp. 

This  species  grows  abnndautly  near  Paiignne  on  tlie  mainland  opposite  the  island 
of  Zanzibar;  discovered  by  8ir  John  Kirk. 

Structural  Fibki;. — The  robust  habit  and  large  size  of  the  leaf  of  this  jilant 
render  it  valuablo  for  hl)er  pnrposes.  Under  exceptional  circumstances  a  leaf  will 
attain  a  height  of  J)  feet.  The  liber  from  plants  growing  at  Kew  was  valued  in  1887 
at  £27  per  ton.  It  ia  nsed  by  the  natives,  and  yields  a  long  and  useful  fiber.  (Dr. 
Morris.) 

Sansevieria  longiflora.     Florida  Bowstring  Hemp. 

Native  of  e<iuatoriiil  Africa,  but  distributed  to  tropical  America;  occurs  in  Trini- 
dad and  is  common  in  garden  cultivation  in  southern  Florida,  or  in  localities  or  on 
some  of  tlie  Icej's,  in  a  semiwild  state  wheie  introduced  plants  have  been  neglected. 
The  Florida  species  was  at  one  time  thought  to  be  guincensis,  but  on  receipt  of 
plants  of  both  f/iiineensis  and  lotujijiora  from  the  royal  Botanic  Gardens  of  Trinidad 
the  form  growing  in  Florida  was  properly  identitied.  The  leaves  are  similar  to  those 
of  S.  (jnineeuxis,  but  larger,  longer,  and  Hatter,  not  so  firm  in  texture,  and  not  inva- 
riably blotched,  the  spots  being  more  irregular  and  tin-  entire  plant  (in  Floritla)  often 
a  lighter  green.  The  Howers  are  3.J  to  4  inches  long,  while  those  of  ^.  guimeuaia  are 
2  inches.     (See  fig.  8,  I'l.  VIII.) 

Structural  Fibkr. — A  specimen  of  fiber  from  plants  grown  at  the  Royal  Kew 
Gardens  in  1887,  and  submitted  to  London  fiber  brokers,  was  described  as  very  bright, 
clean,  and  strong;  in  every  Avay  a  most  desirable  ctmimercial  article,  and  was  valued 
at  £30  per  ton.  Fiber  extracted  by  the  Department,  in  1892,  at  its  experimental  fac- 
tory on  Biscayne  Bay,  Florida,  from  nearly  a  ton  of  leaves  grown  on  Boca  Chica  I'fey, 
was  in  every  way  superior  to  sisal  hemp.  Souse  of  it  was  produced  from  a  hundred 
pounds  of  selected  leaves  that  averaged  GA  feet  in  length,  and  fiber  even  7  feet  long 
was  secured,  while  the  shortest  was  2i  feet. 

Careful  estimates  based  on  the  quality  of  Sansevieria  fiber  produced  in  these  experi- 
ments would  fix  the  yield  at  about  40  pounds  of  fiber  to  the  ton  of  leaves.  The 
Saiisorieria  waste  was  not  weighed,  but  it  is  very  safe  to  state  that  with  only  reason 
able  wastage  (cut  liber  and  liber  drawn  out  with  the  pulp)  the  yield  of  fiber  per  ton 
would  come  nearer  to  .50  i>ounds.  Even  if  this  is  con8i<lerably  lower  than  the  yield 
of  sisal  hemp,  the  quick  growth  of  tho  plant,  the  ease  with  which  it  can  be  harvested, 
and  the  liigher  price  of  the  fiber  will  probably  more  than  make  up  for  the  difference 
in  the  yield  of  cleaned  fiber. 

The  material  is  too  good  for  cordage  in  the  usual  acceptance  of  the  term.  It  is  so 
much  finer  and  better  than  the  cordage  fibers,  so  called,  that  it  would  doubtless 
find  a  use  in  the  manufacture  of  fine  twines,  and  with  pro]>er  pre])aration  might  be 
made  into  a  fair  spinning  fiber,  and  possiblj'  be  emj)loyed  on  some  new  form  of  manu- 
facture. The  fiber  is  fine,  white,  and  lustrous,  the  leaves  yielding  readily  to  treat- 
ment in  the  machine  in  the  fresh  state. 

History  ix  the  United  States. — During  the  investigations  of  the  writer,  in 
Florida,  in  the  winter  of  lMtO-91,  this  plant  was  found  growing  at  several  points, 
principally  .it  Key  West,  on  Boca  Chica  Key,  and  at  Miami  on  the  east  coast.  Noth- 
ing was  accomplished,  however,  further  than  to  demonstrate  that  it  would  thrive 
out  of  doors,  in  southern  Florida,  though  a  brief  mention  was  given  to  tlie  plant  in 
Bulletin  No.  3,  on  sisal  hemp  culture  (Fib.  In  v.  series),  and  a  reference  made  to  the 
value  of  the  Florida-grown  fiber,  several  samples  having  been  secured.  As  early 
as  the  spring  of  1890  several  letters  were  received  relating  to  this  ]daut,  one  of  the 
first  being  from  Dr.  J.  V.  Harris,  of  Key  West,  who  spoke  higiily  of  the  value  of 
this  plant  for  fiber  cultivation.  Letters  were  also  received  from  ^Ir.  George  H.  Bier, 
of  Key  West,  upon  the  subject,  in  one  of  which  the  statement  was  made  that  tlie 
plant  after  introduction  into  the  British  West  India  Islands,  found  its  way  to  Cuba  as 
an  ornamental  plant,  and  in  1866  was  brought  as  an  ornamental  plant  from  Cuba 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  289 

to  the  keys,  aud  that  the  people,  though  ignorant  of  its  value  as  a  fiber  plant  sub- 
seijueutly  became  alarmed  at  its  rapid  extension,  and  endeavored  to  eradicate  it. 
A  little  later  Dr.  Harris  became  interested  in  the  growth  of  the  plant  with  a  view- 
to  embarking  iu  its  cultivation  as  an  industry.  Beyond  establishing  a  small  planta- 
tion, however,  I  have  been  unable  to  learn  that  any  practical  results  followed. 

Prepakatiox  and  crLTiVATioN. — In  1892,  when  the  writer  visited  Key  West,  he 
was  able  to  secure  from  Dr.  Harris  interesting  information  regarding  the  best  manner 
of  multiplying  the  young  plants,  which  were  photographed  in  different  stages  of 
growth.  In  propagating  the  jilant,  for  convenience  the  leaves  are  cut  into  sections 
about  4  inches  long  aud  inserted  into  boxes  of  earth  to  the  depth  of  about  2  inches. 
The  soil  must  be  moderately  dry,  as  too  much  moisture  will  cause  the  leaves  to  rot. 
The  boxes  must  be  placed  in  a  moderately  shady  place,  and  in  a  few  weeks'  time  the 
slips  will  put  out  numerous  fibrous  roots,  which  will  soon  be  followed  by  suckers. 
Tlie  plant  can  also  be  readily  propagated  by  sections  of  its  rhizomes  or  roots,  which 
grow  without  any  difficulty.  It  was  stated  that  the  plant  requires  good,  rich  soil  to 
succeed  well,  and  will  under  favorable  circumstances  ac(]^uire  its  full  growth  in  about 
twelve  months"  time;  ordinarily,  however,  it  will  not  ac(|uire  its  full  growth  until 
sometime  in  the  second  year.  In  the  reports  of  experiments  with  another  species,  in 
Jamaica  (Kew  Bull.,  May,  1887),  the  time  of  growth  to  maturity  is  placed  at  three  and 
a  half  years.  (See  remarks  ou  culture,  under  S.  guineensls.)  Dr.  Harris,  nevertheless, 
states  that  wben  once  the  land  is  stocked  with  its  growth  it  will  always,  when  cut, 
give  a  full  growth  from  the  roots  inside  of  twelve  months ;  so  that  it  is  perfectly  safe, 
after  the  second  year,  to  count  on  a  full  crop  every  year,  the  growth  of  each  year 
becoming  denser,  and  iu  a  few  years  becoming  so  thick  that  it  would  appear  to 
be  impossible  to  cultivate  it ;  which,  however,  appears  to  be  needless,  as  when  once 
fully  established  it  takes  entire  possession  of  the  soil,  entirely  eradicating  everything 
else.  It  does  not  appear  to  materially  exhaust  the  soil,  as  it  will  grow  for  a  number 
of  years  in  the  same  place  and  continue  to  make  vigorous  growth. 

As  to  yield,  it  was  stated  that  after  a  plantation  is  well  established  it  is  j)ossible  to 
secure  a  crop  of  5  tons  of  clean  fiber  per  acre.  The  experiments  of  Dr.  Roxburgh, 
however,  do  not  give  such  figures  of  yield,  as  1,613  pounds  of  fiber  at  a  gathering 
was  estimated,  or,  at  the  rate  of  two  crops  a  year,  a  little  less  than  2i  tons  of  fiber. 

''Specimens  of  the  plants  are  growing  in  the  conservatory  of  this  Department,  and 
of  the  fiber,  in  series,  are  preserved  in  the  Mus.  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag.  See  Report  No,  5, 
Fiber  Investigations  series,  Dept.  Ag.,  chapter  on  Sansevieria. 

Sansevieria  roxburghiana.     Moorva. 

This  species  has  been  knowu  and  prized  iu  India  from  remote  antiqujity  under  the 
name  of  Moorva  or  Miirra.  In  the  catalogue  of  Indian  fibers,  London  (Exhibition, 
1862),  it  is  called  Moorga,  Moorgavee,  or  Moorgalxvee.  It  is  also  known  under  the  ver- 
nacular names  oi  Murgavl,  Murga,  and  MazooJ.  Its  Sanskrit  synonym  is  Goni.  The 
plant  "was  long  confused  with  S.  zcylanica,  but  Sir  Joseph  Hooker  (Flora  of  British 
India,  YI,  p.  271)  has  shown  it  to  be  quite  distinct.  The  leaves  reach  4  feet  iu 
height,  narrow  and  semicircular  in  transverse  section,  faintly  clouded  with  black. 
The  plant  is  cultivated  for  the  sake  of  its  fiber,  aud  is  the  original  bowstring  hemp 
l>lant.  The  many  uses  to  which  the  fiber  is  applied  in  India  are  fully  described  in 
Watt's  Dictionary  of  the  Economic  Products  of  India,  VI,  pt.  2,  p.  460."  {Dr.  Morris.) 
From  this  it  would  appear  that  the  following  statements  by  Dr.  George  Watt  refer 
to  .S'.  roxhiirghUina  the  true  Indian  species,  and  not  to  the  Ceylon  species  S.  seylanlca. 

Structural  Fiber. — From  the  succulent  leaves  is  extracted  a  fiber  held  in  high 
esteem  by  the  natives  on  account  of  its  elasticity  and  consequent  suitableness  for 
bowstrings,  Sir  W.  Jones  says:  "From  the  leaves  of  this  plant  the  ancient  Hindus 
extracted  a  very  long  thread  called  Maurvi  of  which  they  made  bowstrings,  and 
which  for  that  reason  was  ordered  by  Menu  to  form  the  sacrificial  zone  of  the  mili- 
tary classes."  Roxburgh,  iu  his  detailed  account  of  this  fiber,  makes  the  following 
12247— i^o.  9 19 


290  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

somewhat  iuterestiug  remark:  "I  am  incliued  to  think  that  the  fine  line  called 
China  grass,  which  is  employed  for  lishing  lines,  tiddle  strings,  etc.,  is  made  of  these 
fibers."  (Roxburgh  thus  would  seem  to  have  regarded  China  grass  and  Rhea  as  two 
widel}^  distinct  fibers.)  In  his  experiments  80  pounds  of  the  fresh  leaves  yielded  1 
pound  of  clean,  dry  fiber.  He  therefore  concluded  that  the  plant  might  be  cultivated 
with  advantage  on  account  of  its  fiber.  (George  Wait.)  It  is,  in  fact,  easily  cul- 
tivated. The  fiber  is  used  for  the  iireparation  of  cordage  and  matting  in  the  regions 
where  it  occurs,  and  is  much  valued  in  Europe  for  ropes  used  in  deep-sea  dredgings. 
Has  been  used  for  jiaper  but  is  too  expensive  a  fiber  for  this  use.  The  fiber  is  pliant, 
soft,  and  silky,  and  much  resembles  that  of  the  pineapple.  It  is  usually  prepared  by 
taking  the  fresh  leaves  andjdacing  one  of  them  on  a  smooth  board  which  is  raised 
at  one  end.  The  lower  end  of  the  leaf  is  then  pressed  down  by  the  toe  of  the  work- 
man, who  squats  on  the  plank,  and  with  a  blunt  knife,  or  piece  of  iron  plate  scrapes 
upward  along  the  surface  of  the  leaf  and  thus  dojirives  it  of  its  fleshy  pulp  by  suc- 
cessive scrapings,  turning  the  leaf  over  and  over,  as  may  be  necessary.  When  the 
pulp  is  thorougly  removed,  the  fiber  is  washed  for  three  or  four  minutes,  and  dried 
in  the  shade.  Washing  in  brackish  or  salt  water,  or  continuous  soaking  in  water  is 
said  to  destroy  the  glossy  white  appearance  of  this  fiber. 

Sansevieria  zeylanica.     The  Neyanda. 

Another  Indian  species  cultivated  in  Ceylon.  Commonly  cultivated  in  greenhouses, 
in  the  United  •States,  and  readily  known  by  its  shorter,  dnrker  leaves,  heavily  mot- 
tled or  banded  with  white.  The  leaves  are  semicircular  in  transverse  section,  1  to 2 
feet  long,  dull  green  with  a  red  margin,  and  copiously  banded  with  white.  The  Sin- 
ghalese use  the  fiber  in  numerous  ways  for  string,  ropes,  mats,  and  a  coarse  kiud  of 
cloth.  Generally  the  fiber  is  prepared  by  retting  or  by  simply  beating  and  washing. 
The  small  size  of  the  leaves,  and  the  difficulty  of  handling  them  in  largo  quantities, 
would  render  this  species  of  less  value  commercially  than  any  of  the  preceding. 
In  the  Handbook  of  Ceylon,  W.  C.  E.,  1893.  it  is  said  that  the  plant  grows  in  a  Avild 
state  in  the  dry,  drought-stricken  districts  of  the  country.  It  is  usually  found  grow- 
ing among  rocks,  and  aff'ords  a  magnificeut  fiber  of  great  .strength.  It  is  largely 
made  up  into  ornamental  ropes  by  an  outcast  race  of  Singhalese  called  the  Rhodias, 
who  do  a  small  trade  in  this  product. 

Sapindus  saponaria.     Soap  Berry. 

Exogeu.     Sapindacea\ 

This  genus  consists  of  trees  and  shrubs  found  in  the  Tropics  of  both  hemispheres. 
The  outer  shell  or  covering  of  the  fruit  of  the  above  species  contains  a  saponaceous 
principle  that  gives  it  its  name.  Found  in  tropical  America.  The  ])laut  is  given  in 
Dr.  Ernst's  catalogue,  with  the  common  name  Parapara. 

Fiber. — The  bast  of  this  species  yields  a  coarse  fiber,  suitable  for  native  cordage. 
It  is  said  to  be  cultivated  in  India. 

Sapucaya  (Braz.).     See  Lecythis  oJlaria. 

Sara,  Sarapat,  and  Sarpatta  (Hind,  and  Beng.).   See  SaccMrum  sara. 

Sarali  (Ind.).     See  Abms  nitida. 

Sarcochlamys  pulcherrima. 

Syn.  Urtica  pulcherrima. 
This  urticaceous  species  is  described  by  the  Die.  Ec.  Prod.  Ind.  as  a  bush  or  largo 
shrub,  with  a  stem  often  as  thick  as  a  man's  leg.     It  is  found  in  Assam,  the  Khasia 
Hills,  Sylhet,  Chittagong,  and  Bnrmah;  distributed  to  Sumatra.    Yields  a  dye,  and 
the  bark  gives  a  good  fiber  for  ropes. 

Saw  palmetto  (Fla.).    See  Serenoa  serrulata. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE. 


291 


Sarkara,  Sanscrit  name  for  sugar. 


Schcenus  nigricans. 

Au  Europeau  species  of  sedge  grass  tliat  is  used  in  Italy  for  rough  ropes.  S. 
vtelanostachys  is  a  Queenslaud  species,  the  culuis  oi"  which  are  used  iu  basket  manu- 
facture. 

Scirpus  lacustris.     The  Bulrush.    Mat  Ku^h. 

A  tall  sedge  ahoundiug  in  ponds  and  swamps  throughout  North  America;  com- 
mon iu  Europe,  northern  Asia,  Australia,  and  some  of  the  Pacitic  islands.  Known 
in  Italy  as  Giiinco  da  siuoie;  in  Hawaii  as  Akaakai.     (See  tig.  95.) 

Structural  Fiber. — The  entire  stem  is  used  in  manj'  parts  of  the  world  for  mats 
and  mattings.     Among  the  curious  aud  interesting  objects  manufactured  from  this 
sedge  grass  are  baskets,  beehives,  horse   collars,  etc. ;    in  England,  shoes,  used  in 
Denmark  wheu  thrashing  buckwheat  to  prevent 
crushing  the  grain;  packsaddles,  in  Gucrusey, 
for  conveying  "wrack"  from  the  seashore.     The 
Kew  Mus.  exhibits  a  great  coat  made  from  this 
rush,  in   Portugal.      A  variety  of  the  species, 
occidenialis,  is  the  Tule  of  the  Pacitic   Coast. 
Used  in  California  as  cases  for  the  protection  of 
wine  bottles  packed  for  shipment,  .just  as  straw 
covers  are  used  for  the  same  purpose  in  Europe. 
See  also  Eleocharis  palustris. 

The  Yokuts  of  the  Tulare  Lake  region  of  Cali- 
fornia construct  A^ery  rude,  frail  punts,  or  mere 
tronghs  of  Tule,  about  10  feet  long,  in  which 
they  cruise  timidly  about  the  Tulare  Lake,  near 
the  shore.     {Stephen  I'oicers.) 

*  Sjiecimens  of  Tule,  Mus.  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag. 

Scre^v  pine  (see  Fandanus). 

Scriptural    fibers    (see    Introduction, 
Ancient  Uses  of  Fibers). 

Sea  rush  (or  coast  rush).     Juncus  mari- 
timxs. 

Sea  mallcw.     Lavatera  maritima. 

Sea  mat  grass.     Sea  reed  and  sea-sand 
grass.     See  AmmopMla. 

Seaside  grass.     Cyperus  tegetmn. 

Seaweeds. 

While  these  marine  plants  are  not  strictly  speaking  fibrous,  several  species  are 
employed  in  place  of  fibers,  such  as  the  Macrocystis,  from  which  fish  lines  are  obtained. 
In  southern  Europe  the  leaves  of  another  form  of  marine  or  aquatic  weed  (see  Zos- 
tera)  is  employed  as  a  packing  material.  These  plants  belong,  however,  to  the  grass 
wrack  order,  aud  are  in  no  way  related  to  the  true  seaweeds  or  Ahja. 

Sea  wrack.  Grass  wrack,  etc.     Zostera  marina. 
Secale  cereale.    Eye. 

Endogen.     Graminece.    A  cereal  grass. 
An  annual,  4  to  6  feet  high,  with  flat  leaves  and  a  terminal,  somewhat  flattened. 


Fig.  95.— The  Buh-ush,  Sciiyits 
lacustris. 


292  USEFUL   FIBER   PLANTS    OF    THE   WORLD. 

bearded  spike  4  to  6  inches  long.  The  rye  crop  of  the  United  States  in  1895  was 
27,210,070  bushels,  nearly  half  of  which  was  produced  in  the  States  of  Pennsylvania, 
New  York,  and  Wisconsin.  Rye  is  more  largely  cultivated  in  central  and  northern 
Europe  than  in  America,  and  the  grain  is  there  very  largely  used  for  making  bread. 
Rye  straw  is  little  valued  for  fodder,  but  when  green  it  is  esteemed  as  a  forage  plant, 
and  is  sometimes  sown  for  this  purpose  in  the  Southern  States,  cattle  being  allowed 
to  graze  it  during  the  fall  and  winter  months. 

Structiral  Fiber. — Rye  straw  is  used  as  a  straw-plait  material,  particularly  in 
Italy,  where  the  straw  of  both  wheat  and  rye  are  employed  in  this  industry.  As  the 
Italian  use  of  the  straw  is  interesting,  the  following  condensed  account,  from  the 
work  of  M.  A.  Savorgnan,  is  presented:  The  stem  of  the  rye  reaches  a  greater  height 
than  that  of  the  wheat  sown  in  March,  and  when  this  plant  is  cultivated  with  especial 
care  for  its  utilization  as  straw  it  becomes  iiner  and  whiter  than  that  of  the  wheat, 
in  many  cases  therefore  this  is  selected,  although  it  may  be  less  durable.  This  straw 
is  especially  suited  to  the  thatching  of  cottages,  for  the  making  of  beehives,  of  large 
baskets  for  the  transportation  of  dry  figs,  beans,  and  similar  products,  also  various 
uses  about  gardens.  It  is,  besides,  used  in  plaiting  very  fine  braids  for  making  hats 
of  sujierior  Aalue.  It  is  to  be  noted,  however,  that  the  stems  should  be  cut  before 
the  maturity  of  the  grain  and  that  the  straw  of  the  segale  is  diflicult  to  manufacture, 
and  that  it  splits  easily.  There  are  still  found  in  the  markets  some  hats,  although 
they  have  almost  gone  out  of  use,  said  to  be  made  from  rice  straw  ( PuijJia  di  riso),  but 
they  are  such  only  in  name,  for  they  are  made  from  the  fiber  of  a  kind  of  .salcc  (wil- 
low) or  from  exceedingly  line  strips  of  wood  in  which  case  they  would  more  justly  be 
called  chip-hats,  or  hats  made  from  shavings. 

Securidaca  longepedunculata. 

The  genus  Secnridaca  belongs  to  the  Jscle2)iadacea'  and  is  composed  of  trailing 
shrubs,  many  of  which  arc  natives  of  tropical  America.  S.  Jongipednnndatu  is  a  South 
African  species,  which  grows  in  great  abundance  along  the  lakes  and  rivers  of  Cape 
Colony,  South  Africa. 

Bast  Fiber. — The  material  employed  for  making  the  beautiful  fish  nets  used  by 
the  Makouba  tribe  on  Lake  Ngami.  "'Two  kinds  of  fiber  appear  to  be  furnished  by 
the  plant;  one  from  the  bark  of  the  twigs  is  very  strong  and  durable,  and  would 
seem  to  be  the  fiber  from  which  the  nets  are  made,  known  in  Zambesiland  as  Budse 
fiber;  the  other  from  the  stem,  cross  sections  of  which  show  layers  of  fibrous  bark 
between  layers  of  wood."  Bud:e  fiber  seems  to  have  been  first  introduced  to  notice 
by  Dr.  Livingstone  in  18.57.  In  his  Missionary  Travels  and  Researches  in  Sonth 
Africa,  published  in  that  year,  he  says  (p.  645)  that  he  submitted  a  small  (quantity  of 
the  fiber  to  Messrs.  Pye  Bros,  of  London,  who  reported  that  "The  Budze  evidently 
possesses  a  very  strong  and  fine  fiber,  assimilating  to  flax  in  its  character,  Itut  we 
believe  when  treated  in  quantity  by  our  process  it  a\  ould  show  both  a  stronger  and 
finer  fiber  than  flax ;  but  being  unable  to  applj'  the  rolling  or  pressing  processes  with 
efficiency  to  so  very  small  a  quantity,  the  gums  are  not  yet  so  perfectly  extracted  aa 
they  would  be  nor  the  fiber  opened  out  to  so  fine  a  quality  as  it  would  then  exhibit." 
The  opinion  obtained  by  Messrs  Pye  Bros,  from  Messrs.  Marshall,  of  Leeds,  was 
as  follows:  "The  Budze  fiber  appears  to  resemble  flax,  and  as  prepared  by  you  will 
be  equal  to  flax  worth  £50  or  £60  per  ton,  but  we  could  hardly  speak  positivelj'  to 
the  value  unless  we  had  1  or  2  hundredweight  to  try  on  our  machinery.  However, 
we  think  the  result  is  promising,  and  we  hope  further  inquiry  will  be  nuule  as  to  the 
probable  supply  of  the  material."  Dr.  Livingstone  adds  that  the  plant  is  stated  to 
grow  in  large  quantities  in  the  "Maravi  country,  north  of  the  Zambesi,  but  it  is  not 
cultivated,  and  that  the  only  known  use  it  has  been  put  to  is  in  making  threads  on 
which  the  natives  string  their  beads.  Elsewhere  the  split  tendons  of  animals  are 
employed  for  this  purpose.  This  seems  to  be  of  equal  strength,  for  a  firm  thread  of 
it  feels  like  catgut  in  the  hand,  and  would  rather  cut  the  fingers  ttan  break."  (Kew 
BuU.,  Sept.,  1889.) 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  293 

Notwithstanding  the  comparatively  favorable  report  ou  this  fiber,  received  so  far 
back  as  1857,  nothing  has  since  been  done  to  further  its  utilization. 

Semenzuolo  (It.).     Straw-plait  from  wheat.     See  Triticum. 

Sennoc  (Alg.).    L\j(jCAim  spartum. 

Serenoa  serrulata.    The  Saw  Palmetto. 

Eudogen.     ralnuv.     A  trunkless  palm. 

This  is  sometimes  called  the  scrub  palmetto,  as  it  forms  the  undergrowth  of  vast 
areas  of  pine  lands,  and  is  found  in  other  uncultivated  tracts  iu  Georgia  and  Florida, 
and  is  also  found  in  Alabama  and  Louisiana.  The  supply  of  the  plants  is  almost 
inexhaustible,  for  the  palmetto  grows  everywhere,  and  its  big  roots,  often  as  thick 
as  a  man's  leg — and  which  are  produced  at  the  rate  of  20  cords  to  the  acre — will 
send  forth  an  entire  new  crop  of  leaves  within  a  year  after  clearing.  The  species  is 
allied  to  Cliamarops  humilis  of  northern  Africa,  the  leaves  of  which  supply  the  Crin 
vegetal  of  commerce.  Fig.  2,  PI.  X,  illustrates  the  manner  of  growth  of  the  saw 
palmetto,  in  the  pine  barrens  of  the  South ;  hence  its  name  scrub  palmetto. 

Structural,  Fiber. — The  fiber  secured  from  the  leaf  stems  is  used  commercially 
in  the  manufacture  of  a  substitute  for  cows'  hair,  used  in  mixing  mortar  for  plaster- 
ing houses,  a  product  both  cheap  and  durable,  as  lime  does  not  destroy  it.  It  is 
known  as  Nassau  plastering  fiber.  The  stiffer  fiber  when  combed  out  is  also  tised  in 
the  manufacture  of  a  coarse  kind  of  whisk  broom.  A  coarse  cordage  might  also  be 
made  from  it,  but  it  would  lack  in  softness  and  strength  compared  with  the  com- 
mercial fibers.  The  leaves  can  be  shredded  to  make  a  good  upholstery  material, 
and  they  also  form  a  most  valuable  paper  stock.  Unless  the  cost  of  production 
should  prove  an  obstacle,  there  is  no  reason  why  a  valuable  Florida  industry  should 
not  be  created  by  shredding  the  leaves  of  this  palmetto  for  mattress  fiber,  as  1,000  to 
2,000  tons  of  such  fiber  is  brought  from  Africa  to  this  country  annually.  (See  Cha- 
mwrops  humilis.)  Even  if  it  did  not  pay  to  ship  to  the  northern  fiber  markets,  local 
industries  could  be  established  that  would  make  a  home  demand  for  the  fiber.  A 
difiiculty,  heretofore,  in  preparing  this  fiber,  has  been  to  give  it  the  '"curl"  that  is 
found  in  imported  Crin  vegetal,  and  which  adds  so  much  to  the  elasticity  or  springi- 
ness of  the  fiber  in  a  mattress.  This  curl  is  given  to  Crin  vegetal  by  twisting  the 
shredded  fiber  into  coarse  ropes  for  compactness  iu  shipping. 

Attempts  have  been  made  at  various  times  to  establish  this  industry,  and  while  a 
number  of  satisfactory  machines  have  been  constructed  for  shredding  the  leaves,  the 
industry  has  never  attracted  attention.  It  has  1)een  claimed  that  to  sell  the  mattress 
material  at  $25  per  ton,  in  oi-der  to  compete  with  Crin  vegetal,  would  pintail  a  loss  to 
the  manufacturers.  In  a  statement  from  the  manager  of  a  company  that  was  formed 
seven  or  eight  years  ago,  to  manufacture  this  fiber,  it  was  said  that  the  raw  material 
was  purchased  at  $3  to  $5  per  ton,  aud  that  there  was  about  70  per  cent  loss  by  waste 
and  evaporation. 

The  fresh  roots  of  S.  serrulata  which  are  3  to  5  inches  iu  diameter,  are  made  into 
cheap  brushes.  They  are  sawed  into  disks  an  inch  or  more  in  thickness,  the  pulp 
scraped  oub  to  the  depth  of  two-thirds  of  an  inch  by  means  of  toothed  scraping 
wheels,  when  the  longitudinal  fibers,  thus  exposed,  form  the  bristles  of  the  brush, 
the  untouched  portion  of  the  disk  forming  the  back.  This  takes  a  fine  polish,  and 
when  the  sides  are  shaped  and  polished  the  brush  is  completed. 

Both  roots  and  leaves  of  the  palmetto  contain  a  large  percentage  of  tannin,  and 
the  extraction  of  the  tannin  from  palmetto  leaves  has  already  become  an  industry. 
Leather  is  said  to  be  tanned  with  this  product  in  twelve  days,  and  it  is  claimed  that  it 
can  be  more  economically  produced  than  the  leather  tanned  with  oak  or  hemlock 
bark.  The  residue  forms  a  valuable  paper  stock,  which  is  also  utilized.  After  the 
tannin  has  been  extracted  the  palmetto  is  steamed  in  a  chemical  solution,  which 
removes  the  silicate  contained  in  the  palmetto  and  changes  the  glossy  shield  to  a 
gummy  mass,  which  can  be  removed  without  injury  to  the  fiber.    In  making  imitation 


294         USEFUL  FIBER  PLANTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 

horsehair  this  gummy  mass  is  allowed  to  dry,  as  it  adds  to  the  elasticity  of  the 
fiher.  There  are  several  combinatious  in  which  the  production  of  tanuiu  and  fiber 
can  be  advantageously  operated.  Tanneries  situated  in  the  vicinity  of  paper  mills 
can  grind  the  palmetto  in  the  same  manner  as  bark;  the  residue,  after  bleaching,  is 
in  the  proper  shape  for  the  paper  mill.  In  this  way  palmetto  can  be  profitably 
shipped  and  used  at  long  distances.  Showing  the  cheapness  of  the  supply  of  raw 
material,  it  Is  stated  that  the  cost  of  cutting  and  gathering  the  palmetto  will  no 
exceed  $2  per  ton  ;  hauling  and  baling  will  cost  about  $1  per  ton,  and  if  50  cents  l>e 
paid  for  stnrapage  to  the  landowner  it  is  claimed  that  palmetto  ought  to  be  delivered 
at  the  cars  from  $3  to  $i  per  ton,  f.  o.  b. 

C.  B.  Warrand,  who  established  a  palmetto  tannery  at  Savannah,  Ga.,  stated  that 
palmetto  fiber,  not  chemically  treated,  sold  at  wholesale  at  $80  per  ton  and  retailed 
at  8  cents  per  pound ;  $70  per  ton  for  a  better  article  ought  to  be  readily  obtained  at 
the  works.  In  this  process  there  is  less  loss  than  in  spinning  fiber,  and  GaO  pounds 
of  bedding  fiber  and  l.")0  pounds  of  plastering  fiber  to  the  ton  of  palmetto  can  be 
safely  relied  on. 

The  leaves  of  the  saw  palmetto  are  a  favorite  thatch  material  with  the  new  "home- 
steader," whose  first  house  is  a  palmetto  hut,  and  very  comfortable  and  picturesque 
dwellings  they  make.  The  Indians  also  know  the  value  of  the  plant  as  a  thatch 
material. 

*  Specimens,  in  complete  series,  are  preserved  in  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus..  Field  Col.  Mus., 
and  Mus.  V.  8.  Dept.  Ag.,  all  prepared  by  the  writer. 

Sesbania  aculeata.     Dhunchee. 

Exogeu.     Leguminosa'.     An  annual  shrub. 

Native  xa.mes. — Dhunchee.  Dhanicha  (Beng.);  Jayanii  (Ceyl.  and  Hind.);  Ban- 
ehc-wra  (Bomb.). 

The  xdants  of  this  genus  are  slender,  shrubby  annuals,  found  in  the  warmer  parts 
of  both  hemispheres.  S.  aculeata  is  an  erect,  slightly  branched  species  that  is  culti- 
vated on  the  plains  of  Indi;i,  from  the  western  Himalayas  to  Ceylon  and  Siam,  and 
has  a  cosmopolitan  distribution  in  the  Tropics. 

Bast  Fiber. — This  is  the  well-known  Dunchec  of  India,  which  is  highly  esteemed 
for  the  manufacture  of  ropes  and  cordage,  and  is  regarded  as  a  coarse  substitute  for 
hemp.  The  plant  is  a  native  of  the  Malabar  coast,  and  also  grows  in  China.  The 
plant  grows  to  a  height  of  6  to  10  feet :  the  fiber  is  long,  but  much  coarser  and  harsher 
than  hemp.  Bengalese  fishermen  make  the  drag  ropes  of  their  nets  of  this  sub- 
stance on  account  of  its  strength  and  durability.  It  is  generally  grown  in  wet  soil, 
requiring  little  preparation,  as  the  plant  is  hardy  and  of  rapid  growth.  It  is  sown 
at  the  rate  of  30  pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre.  In  northwest  India,  during  the  rainy 
season,  it  springs  up  in  rice  fields  and  other  wet,  cultivated  lands.  A  peculiarity  of 
the  fiber  is  its  remarkable  contractability,  as  from  contraction  alone  ropes  made  of 
it  are  said  to  be  able  to  carry  away  the  mainmast  of  a  ship. 

A  biga  of  land — which  is  one-third  of  an  acre  in  Bengal— will  produce  173  pounds 
of  fiber  and  92  pounds  of  seed.  A  woman  will  dress  1  pounds  a  day.  Royle  states 
that  the  product  of  an  acre  is  100  to  1,000  pounds  of  ill-cleaned  fiber.  At  the  Int. 
Exh.,  18.51,  the  fiber  was  valued  at  £30  to  £35  per  ton.  It  is  priepared  in  the  same 
manner  as  sunn  hemp,  Crotalariajuncea,  which  see  for  further  information  regarding 
the  extraction  and  cleaning  of  the  fiber. 

S.  {cgijptiaca  is  another  Indian  species,  the  fiber  of  which  has  been  used  for  cord- 
age. .S'.  grandijiora,  the  agust,  aguaia,  agasti,  and  agati  of  southern  and  eastern  India 
and  Burmah,  is  a  soft- wooded  tree  20  to  30  feet,  "the  inner  bark  of  which  appears 
likely  to  yield  a  good  fiber."  {Dr.  Wait.)  It  jtroduces,  also,  a  gum,  medicine,  food, 
and  fodder  for  cattle. 

Sesbania  macrocarpa.     Colorado  TJiver  Hemp. 

Seshania  is  the  only  genus  in  the  family  Leguminoxo'  that  has  attracted  attention 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  295 

iu  tbis  couutrj'  as  liber  producing.  Specimens  of  the  straight,  stift'  canes  of  S. 
macrocarpa,  or  the  wild  hemp  of  the  Colorado  River  region,  have  been  sent  to  the 
Department  at  different  times  in  the  past  years,  the  best  samples  of  stalks  and  iiber 
having  been  received  from  the  veteran  collector,  Dr.  E.  Palmer.  Dr.  Parry,  for- 
merly botanist  of  this  Department,  noted  many  years  ago  the  abundance  of  the 
species  on  the  alluvial  banks  of  the  Colorado,  and  also  that  it  grew  in  South  Caro- 
lina, Arkansas,  and  Texas. 

Bast  Fiuer. — Early  specimens  of  the  til)er,  received  by  the  Department,  and  now 
loaned  to  the  Field  Col.  Mus.,  were  4  feet  in  length.  Siiecimens  twice  or  three  times 
as  long  might  be  secured,  however,  as  stalks  12  feet  in  height  are  common.  The 
filaments  as  extracted  are  exceedingly  coarse,  and  resemble  flat  ribbons  of  fiber, 
uncommonly  white  and  lustrous,  and  clear  and  smooth  to  a  remarkable  degree. 
Single  filaments  are  quite  strong,  but  when  several  are  twisted  together  they  lose  a 
part  of  tlieir  strength,  a  defect  sometimes  observed  in  better  fibers.  It  is  somewhat 
elastic,  but  its  smoothness  and  elasticity  are  not  in  its  favor  where  tenacity  is 
required,  as  the  filaments  will  not  cling  when  worked  together.  It  is  sufficiently 
strong  for  small  cordage  for  ordinary  use,  though  too  coarse  for  fish  line  or  twine,  as 
roughly  prepared.  Among  the  manufactures  for  which  it  has  been  claimed  that  this 
fiber  is  fitted  are  wrapping,  writing  and  bond  papers,  twine  and  cordage,  "^sacking, 
overall  stuff",  Irish  linens,"  and  a  faliric  '^better  than  the  best  Japanese  i^ongee  silk." 
The  museum  samples  of  fiber,  collected  by  Dr.  Palmer  and  known  to  be  Sesbania 
macrocarpa  are  hardly  capable  of  manufacture  into  ''Irish  linens"  or  "Japanese 
pongee  silk,"  although  the  filaments  can  be  very  finely  divided.  A  specimen  recently 
submitted  to  Dr.  Taylor  was  subdivided  down  to  one  ten-thousandth  of  an  inch. 

Efforts  to  utilization. — At  different  times,  iu  past  years,  efforts  have  been 
made  to  bring  the  plant  into  prominence.  In  an  early  letter  from  ().  F.  Towusend, 
of  Yuma,  Ariz.,  statements  were  made  as  follows: 

An  indigenous  plant  commonly  known  here  as  wild  hemp,  producing  a  fiber  of 
great  excellence,  grows  profusely  on  both  sides  of  the  Colorado  River  from  Yuma  to 
tide  water  at  the  Gulf  of  California.  The  large  fields  lie  in  Mexican  territory  and 
cover  nearly  100  square  miles  of  area.  Numerous  experiments  have  been  made  with 
difterent  kinds  of  machinery  to  utilize  the  valuable  plant.  The  old  hand-brake 
system  produces  20  per  cent  of  fiber.     The  Indians  work  it  into  nets  and  fish  lines. 

From  statements  by  D.  K.  Allen,  of  Yuma,  Ariz.,  some  interesting  facts  regarding 
the  species  have  been  gleaned.  The  wild  hemp  ripens  from  the  1st  to  the  3d  of  July, 
as  a  rule,  and  still  in  many  places  it  holds  green  until  September  1,  and  the  late 
growth  until  October  1.  It  grows  on  the  clean,  clear  soils  or  lands  lying  along  the 
sloughs  or  branches  of  the  Colorado  and  New  rivers,  which  are  dry  during  the  fall 
and  winter  months.  The  first  rise  in  the  Colorado  comes  in  February  and  lasts  into 
March.  The  second  comes  in  May  and  June  and  runs  from  that  time  on  till  the  next 
February.  The  seed  of  the  Avild  hemp  sprouts  and  begins  to  grow  in  April  and  May, 
running  np  and  appearing  exactly  like  wild  or  overgrown  mustard  stalks — in  fact, 
one  could  hardly  tell  one  from  the  other  except  for  the  difierence  of  taste  in  the  seeds. 
When  young  they  are  not  at  all  alike.  As  soon  as  the  water  recedes  in  August,  and 
from  that  on,  one  can  go  almost  anywhere  through  the  hemp  lands,  although  some 
of  the  sloughs,  or  branches  of  them,  contain  a  little  water  which  would  have  to  be 
bridged.  But  they  are  very  narrow,  only  10  to  20  feet  wide  and  only  21  to  5  feet 
deep,  with  plenty  of  wood,  brush,  and  timber  with  which  to  build  the  bridges. 
Some  of  the  hemp  can  be  cut  with  a  machine,  but  much  of  it  will  have  to  be  cut  by 
hand.  In  April  there  are  stalks  of  the  hemp  which,  a  foot  above  the  ground,  will 
measure  10  inches  in  circumference,  or  more  than  3  inches  in  diameter.  One  of  the 
McCormick  reapers,  rigged  with  guards  of  the  proper  size  and  with  a  sickle  to  corre- 
spond, can  be  arranged  so  as  to  cut  easily  where  they  are  not  larger  than  a  man's 
finger.  The  hemp  can  be  dried  and  pressed  into  l)ales  on  the  ground  Avhere  it  grows. 
It  now  grows  all  along  the  river,  and  back  from  it  for  10  to  12  miles,  to  a  distance, 
uji  and  down,  of  100  miles.     Many  of  the  sloughs  where  water  remains  throughout  the 


296         USEFUL  FIBER  PLANTS  OF  THE  WOELD. 

year  can  be  iised.  Flat  boats  that  cau  carry  10  to  15  tons  can  be  loaded  and  towed 
witb  liorses  or  mules,  poled  or  towed  liy  Indians  when  the  banks  are  too  soft.  Sails 
can  also  be  nsed  to  take  the  hemp  to  the  river,  where  it  can  be  loaded  on  steamers 
and  brought  to  the  railroad,  or  dosvn  the  river  to  the  gulf,  where  it  can  be  loaded 
upon  vessels  for  any  part  of  the  world. 

It  has  been  estimated  that  at  the  very  least  there  are  50,000  acres  of  it,  and  that  in 
the  poorest  years  it  will  yield  500  pounds  of  the  dressed  filier  per  acre.  This  makes 
25,000,000  2)ouuds — 12,500  tons,  or  1.250  carloads  (tf  10  tons  each.  Repeated  efforts 
have  been  made  by  the  Department  to  secure  several  hundred  pounds  of  the  fiber  for 
test,  but  even  the  offer  to  purchase  it  at  a  fair  jirice  has  not  brought  any  practical 
results.  Even  considering  the  coarseness  of  the  fiber,  should  it  be  found  quite  inferior 
to  the  commercial  cordage  libers,  the  fact  that  it  grows  over  such  vast  areas  Avithout 
cultivation,  and  with  such  large  yield,  commends  it  to  our  attention,  for  if  it  cau  be 
cleaned  cheaply  it  has  a  value  for  some  purpose,  and  when  subdivided  bj-  after  chem- 
ical treatment  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  fiber  might  be  nsed  for  higher  purposes  of 
manufacture. 

Seshania  j}Jatycarp(i:  A  few  years  ago  P.  S.  Clark,  of  Hempstead,  Tex.,  stated  that 
this  species  had  suddenly  made  its  appearance  in  his  neighborhood.  He  described 
the  fiber  as  very  strong,  and  thought  that  it  would  make  a  good  bagging  fiber  for 
baling  the  cotton  crop. 

Seubbara  (Arab.).     Agave  americann. 

Shacapa  (Peru).    Attalea  spectahilis. 

Sheathed  galingale  rush.     Cyperxs  vaginatus. 

Sheathed  rush  (Vict.).     Juhchs  ])aucifloriis. 

Sheniolo  (Fnd.).     Bomhax  malaharUiim. 

Sheoak  (Anstr.).     See  Casuarina. 

Shichito-i  mattings  (Jap.).     Cyperus  unltans. 

Shining  galingale  rush  (Met.).     Cyperus  lucid  us. 

Shivan  and  She-wun  (Ind.).     (hnelina»arhorca. 

Shoe-string  grass  (U.  S.).     fSporoholus  cryidmulrus. 

Short-podded  yam  bean.     See  Pdrhyrhizus. 

Shral  (lud.).     Alnus  nitida. 

Sh"wet-simul  (Beiig.).     Eriodcndron. 

Sida  rhombifolia. 

Syn.  Stda  rhomhoidea,  S.  reiusa. 
Exogeu.     Malvacew.     A  perennial  shrub, 

COMMOX  ANi>  NATIVE  NAMKS.— Sida,  and  Tea-plant  (U.  S.);  Queensland  hemp 

(Australian  colonies);  Atabula  (Sane);  Swet  Bariala  and  Sufet  Bariala  (Ind.); 

Escoha  (Yenez.), 

Abounds  in  the  tropical  regions  of  India;  distributed  to  Australia  and  to  North 

and  South  America.     According  to  the  Des.  Ec.  Prod.  Ind.,  the  Linnean  varieties 

accepted  by  botanists   are  as  follows:  scahrida,   reiusa,  rhomhoidea,   ohovata,   and 

rhombifolia.     It  seems  probable  that  the  sida  fiber  experimented  with  in  Bengal  has 

been  chiefly  obtained  from  ,S'.  rhombifolia  or  S.  romhoidea.     S.  rhombifolia  abounds  in 

many  portions  of  South  America.     1)t.  ICrust  states  that  it  is  verv  common  in  Xene- 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  297 

zuela,  growing  wild  in  alllocalities,  the  fiber  being  readily  extracted,  and  fine  and 
strong. 

As  far  back  as  1889  the  Office  of  Fiber  Investigations  received  from  South  Caro- 
lina statements  regarding  S.  rliomhifolia,  which,  on  the  authority  of  J.  P.  Porcher, 
of  Eutawville,  in  that  State,  had  been  known  as  a  weed  throughout  that  region  for 
many  years,  at  least  since  1880.  Later,  when  visiting  Charleston,  the  attention  of 
the  writer  was  called  to  the  plant  bj^  Dr.  Pankuin,  who  states  that  it  had  made  its 
appearance  in  comparatively  recent  years,  and  was  now  a  common  roadside  weed. 
As  it  was  early  in  June,  the  stalks  liad  not  sufficiently  matured  to  give  particular 
evidence  of  value  as  a  fiber  plant,  although  later  some  good  hand-prepared  samples 
of  the  fiber  were  secured.     It  has  also  been  grown  in  Alabama. 

Bast  Fiber. — Chemists  say  that  although  closely  similar  to  jute  in  structure  and 
general  chemical  characteristics,  it  is  in  appearance  a  superior  fiber,  being  softer  to 
the  touch  and  in  all  respects  more  uniform. 

A  beautiful  example  of  the  fiber  labeled  Sida  reiusa,  and  known  as  "Queensland 
hemp,"  was  received  by  the  Department  in  1876  from  the  Queensland  collection 
(Phil.  Int.  Exh.,  1876),  accompanied  by  another  specimen  from  Victoria  labeled  Sida 
rhomhifolia.  The  first  named  was  prepared  by  Dr.  Guilfoyle,  who  stated  that  the 
plant  had  established  itself  in  Melbourne,  and  was  of  very  quick  growth,  seeding 
freely.  He  regarded  the  fiber  as  suitable  for  fine  paper  and  for  the  manufacture  of 
cordage.  The  sample  of  S.  rhomhifolia  is  very  white  and  lustrous,  the  filaments  fine 
and  even.  In  a  portion  of  the  museum  sample  the  ribbon-like  character  of  the  bark 
is  retained,  filled  with  delicate  indentations,  giving  it  a  lace-like  appearance.  These 
ribbons  of  fiber  break  easilj",  but  a  twisted  cord  of  the  finer  prepared  fiber,  the  size 
of  cotton  wrapping  twine  of  the  shops,  broke  only  after  repeated  trials  with  the 
hands.  The  fiber  was  prepared  by  Alexander  McPherson.  In  India  the  bark  yields 
"abundance  of  very  delicate  fiax-like  fibers,"  which  Dr.  Eoxburgh  thought  might  be 
advantageously  used  for  many  purposes.  Forbes  Watson,  in  the  Descriptive  Cata- 
logue of  the  East  Indian  Department,  International  Exhibition,  1862,  pronounces 
the  tiber  similar  to  jute  in  appearance,  "but  considered  to  be  intrinsically  so  supe- 
rior that  it  is  worth  from  ^5  to  ^G  more  per  ton,  and  he  places  it  next  that  fiber"  in 
order  to  attract  to  it  the  attention  which  it  deserves.  Experiments  with  the  fiber 
of  S.  rhomhifolia  demonstrated  the  fact  that  a  cord  one-half  inch  in  circumference 
would  sustain  a  weight  of  400  pounds.  In  speaking  of  Dr.  Roxburgh's  sjiecimens, 
Royle  says  "the  fibers  are  from  4  to  5  feet  in  length,  and  display  a  fine,  soft,  and 
silky  fiber,  as  well  adapted  for  spinning  as  jute,  but  infinitely  superior."  Fur- 
ther experiments  in  India  have  demonstrated  that  sida  fiber  is  also  superior  to  jute 
from  the  fact  that  under  hydrolysis,  or  bleaching  and  cleaning  with  alkali,  "it  loses 
a  very  much  smaller  proportion  of  its  weight,  is  therefore  less  easily  disintegrated 
by  the  action  of  water,  and  is  consequently  more  durable."  The  fact  that  its  stalks 
are  not  more  than  half  the  length  (or  size)  of  jute  is  ii  disadvantage  compared  with 
jute,  as  indicating  a  much  smaller  yield.  George  Watt,  of  the  revenue  and  agricul- 
tural department  of  India,  was  of  the  opinion,  regarding  the  Indian  experiments, 
that  the  properties  of  the  sida  fiber  recommended  it. as  worthy  all  the  time  an 
expenditure  necessary  to  ascertain  whether  or  not  all  its  advantages  are  counterbal- 
anced, from  the  money  standpoint,  by  a  less  acreage  in  yield.  Thirty  years  ago  the 
fiber  of  "Stifel  hariala"  (S.  rhomhoidea),  as  produced  in  India,  was  considered  worth 
from  $25  to  $30  more  per  ton  than  jute. 

Growth  in  the  United  States. — The  species  has  been  cultivated  in  parts  of  the 
South  as  a  forage  plant.  Statements  received  from  Hon.  G.  D.  Tillman,  of  South 
Carolina,  in  1890,  throw  some  light  on  the  habits  of  the  species : 

"I  do  not  remember  seeing  a  sprig  of  S.  rhomhifolia  until  about  four  years  ago  (1886), 
when  a  small  patch  of  it  first  appeared  in  the  back  yard  of  my  residence,  whence 
it  has  spread  over  the  yard,  covering  an  acre  or  more  of  laud,  and  scattering  sprigs 
of  it  are  appearing  here  and  there  at  numerous  localities  over  the  large  plantation. 
Last  summer  I  saved  3  or  4  bushels  of  seed,  and  in  the  fall  scattered  them  in  waste 


298  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

places  and  in  ray  pasture.  In  traveling  about  the  State  last  year  I  discovered  the 
plant  flourishing  in  the  waste  places  of  the  streets  in  nearly  every  village  and  town. 
I  also  found  it  thriving  in  the  lanes  and  aloug  the  roadside  of  the  forest  lands  in  the 
Tertiary  formation  or  'low  country'  of  South  Carolina,  where  a  clay  subsoil  pre- 
vails, and  wherever  there  was  moisture  as  well  as  clay  (in  a  shallow  ditch,  for  in- 
stance), each  separate  sprig  of  thick-growing  sida  was  3,  4,  and  sometimes  5  or  6  feet 
high.  One  striking  peculiarity  of  the  plant  is  that  a  single  sprig  growing  by  itself 
will  bunch,  or  rather  branch  out  from  the  stem  just  above  ground,  so  as  to  resemble 
a  squatty  thicket  of  many  short-limbed  shrubs,  with  only  one  root,  however;  but 
when  the  sprig  grows  thickly,  each  from  its  own  root,  the  plants  are  straight  and 
without  limbs  or  knots  on  the  stems,  except  at  the  very  top,  and  as  tough  as  hick- 
ory, boxwood,  or  perhaps  any  other  wood.  I  have  several  acres  of  this  plant  growing 
for  pasture  only.  It  is  neither  fit  for  hay  nor  for  soiling,  but  it  is  a  good  pasture 
plant  for  cattle,  sheep,  and  hogs.  Horses  do  nor  seem  to  relish  it  much,  while  cattle 
in  particular  appear  to  like  it  and  thrive  on  it  almost  as  well  as  upon  Japan  clover 
{Lespedeza  striata).  The  plant  has  a  wonderful  tap  root  and  a  large  leaf,  besides  the 
habit,  where  left  to  reseed  itself,  of  standing  very  thick  on  the  land  and  shading  almost 
every  inch  of  the  surface  of  the  soil.  For  these  reasons  I  have  thought  it  must  be 
an  excellent  greeu  manure  plant,  and  am  trying  some  experiments  to  test  it  as  such. 
I  am  glad  to  hear  from  you  now  that  my  mucilaginous  jiet,  sida,  '  when  planted  thickly 
and  allowed  to  mature,  produces  a  finer  fiber,'  a  virtue  I  did  not  dream  it  possessed, 
although  I  had  often  observed  the  great  toughness  and  strength  of  its  bark." 

The  stalks  of  sida  that  have  been  sent  to  the  Department  for  examination,  as  well 
as  those  seen  by  the  writer  in  the  field,  from  South  Carolina  are  too  small  to  be  of 
value  for  the  extraction  of  the  fiber.  Some  .stalks  grown  in  Alabama,  however, 
from  India  seed  (marked  S,  relusa),  reached  a  height  of  5  feet.  The  conclusions  of 
the  writer  regarding  the  cultivation  of  the  plant  on  American  soil — based  upon  the 
results  of  limited  experiment,  it  is  true,  and  from  examining  stalks  from  difi'erent 
localities — would  lead  to  the  statement  that  the  plant  is  too  slow  in  growth,  and  the 
stalks  too  small  when  grown,  to  make  it  of  commercial  value  as  a  fiber  plant.  And 
it  is  doubtful  if  the  bast  will  yield  as  readily  to  treatment  as  jute,  for  when  steeped 
in  water  it  is  said  to  re([uire  almost  double  the  time  necessary  to  properly  macerate 
the  jute  bast. 

*  Specimens. — Mus.  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag. ;  Field  Col.  Mus. 

Other  species. — S.  carpinifoJia  is  found  in  the  hotter  parts  of  India,  its  stems 
yielding  a  good  fiber  which  is  employed  in  native  uses.  It  is  also  found  in  Brazil 
where  it  is  employed  for  making  brooms  Avith  which  to  sweep  the  huts  of  the 
natives.     This  species  is  now  regarded  as  identical  with  .S'.  rhombifolia. 

S.  cordifolia  (Sjn.  S.  rotiindifolia)  is  a  small  perennial  weed  generally  distributed 
over  tropical  and  subtropical  India.  "  The  plant  yields  a  fine  white  fiber."  (George 
Watt.)  A  good  example  of  the  fiber  of  S.  panicidata  is  preserved  in  the  Bot.  Mus. 
Harv.  Univ. 

Silk,  Artificial  (see  Artificial  silk). 

Silk  cotton. 

See  this  name  under  cotton — silk  cottons,  in  alphabetical  arrangement. 

Silk  grass. 

This  term  is  applied  indiscriminately  to  many  structural  fibers,  derived  from 
foliaceous  plants,  and  as  a  distinctive  name  it  is  worthless.  Some  of  the  species  of 
fibers  that  have  been  called  silk  grass,  silk  grass  of  Honduras,  etc.,  are  Ananas 
sativa,  Karatas  plumieri,  Brotnelia  syJvestris.  Furcrwa  cubensis,  and  other  similar  forms, 
while  the  name  has  even  been  applied  to  the  liber  of  some  of  the  Agaves.  Its  use, 
therefore,  without  the  botanical  name  of  the  species  can  only  add  to  the  confusion 
which  already  exists. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  299 

Silk,  Vegetable  (see  Silk  cotton). 

Silk  ■wool,  of  Orozuz.     Gonolohus  maritimus  and  Ihatia  muricata,  of 
Dr.  Ernst's  list. 

Simal  tree,  of  India.     Bomhax  malaharicmn. 

Sincara  (Peru).     See  Maranta. 

Sinlo-kawa  (Jap.).     Cocos  micifera. 

Sinu-mataiavi  (Fiji).     WiTtstroemia  viridiflora. 

Sisal  hemp  (see  Agave  rigida,  varieties). 

Slender  spike  rush.     Eleocharis  acuta. 

Slender  s"wordrush.     Lepidosperma  flexuonum. 

Slough  grass  (used  for  binding  twine).     See  Garex  vulpinoidea. 

Snake  gourd  (see  Luffa  (vgyptiaca). 

Soap  berry.     Sapindus  saponaria. 

Soap  plants.     Chloragah(m  pomeridianum,  Sapindus  saponaria,  Yucca 
baccata. 

Sola,  or  Shola  (Beng.).    ^^schyoniene  aspera. 

Solidago  canadensis.    Canada  Golden  Rod. 

Exogeu.     Compos\t(v.     A  jierennial  herb. 
The  golden  rods  are  so  familiar  that  they  need  no  description.     They  can  hardly 
be  called  fiber  plants,  but  Dr.  Havard  informs  me  (on  the  authority  of  V.  L.  Porcher) 
that  the  stalks  of  the  above  species,  which  are  numerous,  straight,  and  almost  5  feet 
in  height,  aft'ord  very  strong  fiber  -when  treated  in  the  same  manner  as  hemp. 

Some^vake-Mushiro.     Japan  matting.     Cyperns  unitans. 

Sosquil.     One  of  the  Mexican  names  ot  sisal  hemp.     See  Agave  rigida. 

Soymida  febrifuga.    Indian  Bastard  Cedar. 

Exogeu.     Meliacea'.     A  lofty  tree. 
Northwestern,    central,  and   southern  India,  extending   to   Ceylon.'      Known  as 
liolum,  Hind.,  Rohan,  Beng.,  etc.     The  reddish  fiber,  derived  from  the  bark,  is  used 
in  Chutea  Nagpiir  for  strong  ropes. 

Spanish  bayonet  (U.  S.).     Yucca  aloifolia  and  other  species. 
Spanish  needle  (Trin.),     Yucca  aloifolia. 
Sparmannia  africana. 

Exogen.     Tiliaceo'.     Shrubs,  3  to  12  feet. 

Native  of  Africa.  Common  in  greenhouses,  aud  thus  introduced  into  many  coun- 
tries; flourishes  in  Victoria,  where  its  growth  is  rapid. 

Bast  Fiber— The  museum  specimens  of  this  fiber  were  received  from  the  Phil. 
Int.  Exh.,  1876,  and  were  jirepared  in  Victoria  by  Dr.  Guilfoyle.  The  fiber  is  of  a 
beautiful  silvery-gray  color  wheu  it  has  been  properly  prepared.  Some  of  the  fila- 
ments are  brilliant  and  lustrous,  aud  it  possesses  considerable  strength  ;  in  fact,  seems 
almost  equal  to  China  grass  in  tenacity.  "The  fiber,  which  is  produced  in  large 
quantities  (in  Victoria),  is  of  a  very  fine  texture.  For  many  purposes  it  is  equal,  if 
not  superior,  to  the  Chinese  grass  cloth  plant."     (Dr.  GuUfoyle.) 


300  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

The  advantages  •whicli  S2)annannia  lias  over  all  other  fiber  plants,  and  -which  ele- 
vates it  to  the  highest  rank  of  agricultural  products,  are,  that  it  is  perennial;  it  is 
one  of  the  very  best  forage  plants  in  existence;  its  enormous  yield,  both  of  fodder 
and  fiber,  the  great  strength  and  dazzling  whiteness  of  the  fiber,  the  facility  with 
which  it  takes  dyes,  and  the  extremely  low  prices  at  which  it  can  be  produced 
making  it  accessible  even  to  the  paper  manufacturer.    (Jean  Ilofh.) 

Economic  considerations. — In  1890  the  Department  received  from  Dr.  Harris,  of 
Key  West,  an  interesting  account  of  the  culture  and  preparation  of  this  fiber  plant 
from  notes  from  the  South  African  authority  <iuoted  above.  From  these  notes  it  is 
learned  that  Sparmannia  grows  in  almost  any  except  a  brackish  soil.  It  requires 
deep  jilowing  and  is  much  benefited  by  manuring,  although  it  grows  luxuriantly  in 
South  Africa  in  soils  where  no  other  crop  will  grow  without  fertilization.  The  seeds 
should  be  sown  in  drills  28  inches  apart,  and  the  plants  thinned  out  to  the  distance 
of  14  or  16  inches  in  the  drill  as  soon  as  all  danger  from  frost  has  ])assed.  The  plants 
taken  up  in  thinning  transplant  as  easily  as  mangel-wurzel.  It  has  no  inseit  enemies 
of  consequence. 

As  soon  as  the  plants  are  from  12  to  18  inches  high  they  should  be  nipped,  or  bud- 
ded, if  they  do  not  branch  out  freely.  From  12  to  18  stalks  should  grow  from  each 
plant  the  first  year.  After  the  first  cutting  upward  of  .")0  stalks  will  spring  out ;  the 
greater  the  number  the  slenderer  the  growth  and  the  stronger  the  fiber.  Reaping  may 
begin  about  six  months  from  the  time  of  sowing  and  continue  six  months.  In  climates 
where  the  orange  tree  grows  four  crops  would  be  certain,  which  would  amount  to  12 
tons  per  acre  during  the  year.  The  stalks  for  fiber  should  be  cut  abont  6  inches  above 
the  soil  and  may  l)e  treated  to  extract  the  fiber  at  once.  They  should  not  be  cut,  how- 
ever, more  than  twelve  hours  in  advance.  For  this  purpose  any  of  the  various  hemp  or 
flax  machines  will  answer.  A  jet  of  water,  however,  must  always  flow  over  the  place 
of  friction.  Before  the  fiber  is  dried  it  should  be  sulphured  similarly  to  straw  goods. 
Another  way  of  extracting  the  fiber  is  by  retting  the  stalks  in  water,  which  is  the 
cheaper  and  easier  way.  This  is  done  in  vats,  which  should  be  so  constructed  as  to  be 
easily  eniiiticd,  and  should  not  be  more  than  1  feet  deep.  A  vat  20  by  40  feet,  and  4  feet 
deep,  will  hold  enough  stalks  to  produce  a  ton  of  cleaned  fiber.  To  secure  a  uniform 
whiteness  of  the  fiber  water  should  be  gently  running  from  one  vat  to  another  all 
the  while,  and  never  at  a  temjierature  lower  than  18^  C.  in  the  daytime.  When  a  vat 
is  packed  with  stalks  narrow  inch  boards  should  be  placed  across  it  on  the  stalks,  so 
that  tubs  or  casks  filled  with  water  can  be  put  upon  them  so  as  to  hold  the  stalks 
constantly  under  water  at  least  2  inches,  where  they  should  be  allowed  to  remain 
ten  or  fifteen  days,  wlien  they  will  be  found  ready  lor  washing.  The  washer  now 
takes  his  station  alongside  of  the  A-at,  and  taking  a  handful  of  the  stalks  in  Jiis  hand, 
catching  them  in  the  middle,  he  turns  the  toji  ends  toward  the  surface  of  the  water 
at  an  inclination  of  about  45  and  pokes  the  thin  ends  three  or  four  times  into  the 
water,  when,  if  the  stalks  are  sufficiently  retted,  the  fiber  at  the  upper  end  hangs 
down  in  a  lock  of  which  the  washer  takes  hold  and  lets  loose  the  middle,  bo  that 
the  whole  handful  hangs  \\\\o\\  the  lock  or  loose  fiber.  He  then  gives  two  or  three 
jerks  with  the  hand,  liolding  the  fiber  lock  upward,  and  all  the  stalks  free  from  fiber 
drop  out.  This  is  repeated  until  he  has  a  good  handful  separated  from  the  stalk. 
He  again  takes  them  at  the  end  and  lowers  the  hand  until  about  6  inches  from  the 
water,  so  that  the  fiber  nearly  floats  upon  the  surface.  He  then  moves  the  hand 
quickly  from  right  to  left  several  times  and  the  fiber  is  washed  as  white  as  snow. 
Then  taking  the  clean  end  in  his  hand,  he  repeats  the  operation  with  the  other  end; 
the  whole  operation  is  done  quickly.  Half  an  hour's  practice  will  make  a  skilled 
washer  of  any  person  of  ordinary  intelligence.  One  perstm  can  wash  out  100  pounds 
of  clean  fiber  in  ten  hours.  This  shows  how  easily  the  fiber  is  extracted  and  cleaned, 
and  how  simple  the  machiue  must  be  to  supplant  hand  decortication.  The  syndicate 
used  ordinary  scutchers  with  water  jets,  after  the  i)lan  of  the  W.  E.  Death  patent. 
They  found  out  that  the  retting  and  hand  decortication  was  the  best  and  cheapest, 
as  there  was  no  waste. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE. 


501 


Spartina  cynosuroides.     Fkesh  Water  Coed  Grass. 

Eudogeu.     Graminea'.    Au  erect  grass,  2  to  9  feet.      (Fig.  96.) 
Common  NAMES. — Cord  grass;  iresli  water  cord  grass ;  marsh  grass;  bull  grass; 
thatch  grass ;  slough  grass. 

The  species  of  this  genus  are  chietly  natives  of  America;  there  are  British  repre- 
sentatives, but  they  are  rare.  ''The  above  species  is' a  native,  common  along  our 
oceau  iind  lake  shores,  borders  of  rivers,  etc.,  ranging  from  Maine  to  the  Carolinas, 
and  westward  to  the  Pacific.  It  makes  a  fair  but  rather  coarse  hay  when  cut  early, 
and  has  been  successfully  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  paper.  The  strong,  creep- 
ing, scaly  rootstocks  of  this  grass  adapt  it  for  binding  loose  sands  and  river  embank- 
ments."    {F.  Lamson-Scribner.) 

Stkuotural  Fibkr. — T  w  e  n  t  y 
years  ago  or  more  this  grass  was 
utilized  in  paper  manufacture  at 
Quiucy,  111.,  where  it  was  found  in 
vast  quantities.  It  cost  at  the  mill 
about  $5  i^er  ton,  and  made  a  very 
lirm,  better  class  of  browu  wrap- 
ping paper — superior  to  straw — 
samples  of  which  can  be  seeu  in  the 
museum  of  the  Department  of  Ag- 
riculture. The  bruised  stalks  pre- 
sent quite  a  iibrous  appearance. 

S.  gracilis  is  another  possible  pa- 
per-making species,  found  on  the 
plains  and  in  the  Rocky  Mountain 
regions. 

Spartina  juncea. 

Common   names. — Fox   grass; 

white    rush;     marsh   grass; 

salt  grass;  sea  salt  grass;  salt 

marsh    grass;     rush     marsh 

grass. 
A  rather  slender  species,  1  to  2 
(rarely  3  to  4)  feet  high  with  two 
or  four  slender,  erect,  or  widely 
spreading  spikes.  This  is  common 
iipon  the  salt  marshes,  and  is  one 
of  the  most  valued  sjiecies  which 
go  to  form  the  salt  hay  that  these 

marshes  produce.     It  ranges  from  i  lo.  96.— Coul  j;i,i 

Maine   southward   to   Florida  and 

al»ug  the  Gulf  coast  to  Texas.     It  is  usefulfor  packing  glassware,  crockery,  etc.,  and  in 
the  larger  towns  along  the  coast  is  much  used  for  this  purpose.     (F.  Lamson-Scrihner. ) 
S.  stricta,  the  creek  sedge,  branch  grass,  etc.,  grows  along  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
coasts,  and  is  also  found  in  Europe.     It  is  sometimes  used  as  a  thatch  material. 

Spartium  jiinceum.    Spanish  Broom. 

Common  names. — The  (Hiiestrn  di  Spagna  of  the  Italians;  the  Gen^l  d^Fspagiie  oi 
the  French;  Gayttmha,  Spanish. 

A  native  Mediterranean  sjiecies  of  broom,  widely  cultivated  as  an  ornamental 
plant,  and  as  a  forage  plant,  and  formerly  for  its  fiber.  Found  in  southern  France, 
Spain,  and  Italy.  One  of  the  ancient  fibers  known  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  its 
generic  name  being  derived  from  sparton,  meaning  cordage. 

Structural  Fiber. — This  is  obtained  from  the  voung  Bhoots  by  maceration    and 


HI  cynosuroides. 


302         USEFUL  FIBER  PLANTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 

subsequent  separation  of  the  woody  portions  of  the  stem  somewhat  as  flax  is  pre- 
pared, after  which  the  fiber  is  combed  and  cleaned  ready  for  spinning.  It  has  been 
employed  in  paper  manufacture,  as  upholstery  material,  as  a  tie  material,  for  cord- 
age manufacture,  and,  lastly,  for  weaving  into  fabrics.  At  Casciana,  in  Italy,  on  the 
Leo-horn  and  Florence  Railway,  hot-spring  water  is  used  for  the  rettiug;  and  a  com- 
pany was  some  years  since  formed  for  growing  the  plant  and  manufacturing  the 
fiber  on  a  large  scale.  Specimens  of  the  fiber  were  exhibited  at  the  Vienna  Exhibi- 
tion of  1873  from  Florence,  Italy,  with  a  memorandum  as  follows:  Taking  note  of 
the  exjjense  necessary  to  render  this  filament  flexible  and  fit  lor  weaving,  we  find 
that  it  is  considerably  less  than  that  for  flax  and  hemp  and  that  the  fabric  obtained 
is  more  tenacious  and  also  lighter,  since  from  11  kilos  of  flax  Ave  obtain  60  meters  of 
cloth,  Avhile  the  same  measure  avoacu  from  ginestra  weighs  only  7  kilos,  and  the  cost 
of  the  first  is  72  lire,  while  that  of  the  second,  according  to  the  experiments  made, 
cost  only  45  lire. 

In  Spain  very  fine  tissues  are  made  from  this  species,  and  even  lace,  which  is 
hi<^hly  prized.  In  southern  France  likewise,  ordinary  fabrics  are  made  from  the 
plant,  which  are  Avorn  by  the  peasants  in  tlie  mountainous  regions,  and  said  to  be 
very  durable. 

The  ancient  use  of  this  fiber  is  very  interesting.  The  Greeks,  Romans,  and  Car- 
thagenians  employed  it  for  cordage  of  all  descriptions,  nets,  bags,  and  even  sails. 
Pliny  writes  of  the  Ginestra,  and  in  the  thirteenth  century  the  fiber  was  employed 
for  wadding  and  in  tow  "that  may  be  used  in  place  of  hemp  and  flax.''  The  Italian 
peasants  from  time  immemorial  have  ns<d  this  fiber  for  the  manufacture  of  the  coarse 
Parmo  Ginestro  or  Ginestra  cloth,  though  the  factories  have  never  employed  it  in  spin- 
ning and  weaving. 

CrLTiA'ATiON. — The  seed  is  sown  in  Avinter,  with  some  other  croi>.  For  three  years 
the  plant  receives  only  an  occasional  thinning  out.  The  young  spring  shoots  are  cut 
in  February-March,  or  sometimes  not  till  after  harvest,  the  former  being  preferable. 
Toward  the  end  of  August,  they  are  collected  in  small  handfuls,  and  laid  on  the 
ground  to  dry,  after  which  they  are  made  up  into  large  bundles,  of  25  to  30  handfuls 
each,  and  stored.  On  a  damp  day  they  are  beaten  with  a  mallet,  so  as  to  flatten 
them  without  breaking  them,  and  toward  the  end  of  September  they  are  put  under 
stones  in  a  river  for  half  a  day.  In  the  evening  they  are  taken  out  and  arranged  in 
rows  on  a  specially  prepared  plot  of  ground,  near  the  stream,  ready  for  watering. 
For  this  purpose  a  bed  of  fern,  straw,  or  chopped  box  is  prepared,  and  in  this  the 
bundles  of  broom  are  placed  one  over  another,  the  whole  heap  being  finally  covered 
with  another  layer  of  straw  or  box,  on  the  top  of  which  stones  are  placed,  so  as  to 
keep  the  whole  secure,  and  exclude  sun  and  air.  Thus  placed,  it  is  watered  every 
night  for  eight  days,  allowing  about  1  hectoliter  water  for  each  bundle  of  50  handfuls. 
On  the  ninth  day  the  retting  is  complete.  The  bundles  are  then  alternately  Avashed 
in  running  water,  and  beaten  on  a  flat  stone,  till  the  fiber  is  separated  from  the 
woody  portion.  The  bundles  are  next  spread  fan- wise  on  the  ground  to  dry  and 
bleach,  when  they  are  again  collected  and  put  away  till  winter.     (Spou.) 

Spatholobus  roxburghii. 

Syu.  Buten  })arvifior((. 
A  gigantic  climber,  belonging  to  the  Leguminosir,  found  in  the  "forests  of  the  sub- 
Himalayan  tract  from  the  Jumna  eastward  to  Bengal  and  Burmah.     The  plant  yields 
a  gum,  the  seeds  an  oil,  an<l  the  bark  a  fiber  that  is  twisted  into  ropes  and  bow- 
strings."    (Die.  Ec.  Prod.  Ind.) 

Spathodea  rheedii. 

A  tall  tree  belonging  to  the  Bignoniaceo',  found  in  portions  of  India  and  Malabar. 
The  species  of  this  genus  are  natives  of  Asia  and  Africa.  "A  fiber  is  extracted  from 
both  the  branches  and  roots,  used  for  making  nets."  (Spon.)  The  revised  name  of 
this  species  is  DoUchandrone  rheedii. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE. 


303 


Spear  Lily  (Yict.).     I>oryantlie.s  exceha. 
Sphaeralcea  cisplatina. 

This  genus  oi^ Malracea:  is  closely  allied  to  Malva,  aud  iiuliides  a  number  of  trop- 
ical American  species.  S.  cisjilathia,  the  fiber  of  Malnilisco,  is  used  in  Brazil  to  a 
slight  extent.  iS'.  umbellaia  is  a  Mexican  species,  known  iu  Australia  as  the  Globe 
mallow.     Guilfoyle  states  that  its  bast  yields  silky  fiber,  useful  for  cordage. 

Sphagnum  spp. 

A  genus  of  inosses,  essentially  aquatic  plants,  or  plants  requiring  a  great  deal  of 
moisture.  They  do  not  yield  fiber,  but  on  account  of  the  softness  and  elasticity  of 
the  plants  iu  mass  they  make  an  admira- 
ble i>aekiug  material.  The  plants  form 
turf  beds  rapidly,  but  unless  mixed  with 
other  plants  the  turf  is  spongy  aud  un- 
fitted for  use.  S.  cymhifoliuin,  bog  moss, 
is  used  in  Norway,  iu  house  construction, 
for  stuffing  between  the  timbers  to  ren- 
der the  house  water-tight.  "S.  vulgare 
is  a  German  species,  "which  has  been  used 
for  paper."  {Bernardin.)  Some  of  the 
American  si^ecies  are  employed  iu  nur- 
series as  a  packiug  material  for  living 
plants.  In  other  countries  the  material 
has  been  used  in  a  dry  state  for  packiug 
fine  glassware. 

Spike  rush  (see  Eleochark). 

Sponge  cucumber  (see  Luffa). 

Sponia  (see  Trema). 

Sporobolus   cryptandrus. 

Prairie  Grass. 

A  strongly  rooted  perennial  grass  2  to 
3  feet  high,  common  on  the  "Western 
plains  and  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  re- 
gion. It  is  well  liked  by  stock,  and 
where  it  occurs  abundantly  is  very  gen- 
erally regarded  as  an  important  forage 
plant.     (See  fig.  97.) 

Structural  Fujer.— In  1891  a  speci- 
men of  this  grass  was  sent  to  the  Depart- 
ment from  Kansas  by  a  coi-respondeut,  who  stated  that  its  superior  strength  recom- 
mended it  as  a  useful  fiber  plant,  and  that  it  was  worthy  of  cultivation  as  a  raw 
material  for  paper  stock,  aud  possibly  for  cordage  manufacture.  The  grass  first 
makes  its  appearance  on  ground  that  has  been  plowed,  and  that  has  lain  fallow  for 
one  or  two  years.  The  farmers  have  given  it  various  names  such  as  "tow  grass," 
"leather  grass,"  "shoe-string  grass,"  etc. 

The  fibrous  portion  of  the  plant  appears  to  be  the  leaf  sheaths  of  the  blossom 
stalk,  and  some  of  these  are  very  strong,  but  of  too  short  length  to  utilize  in  manu- 
facture. The  average  of  several  tests  of  these  leaf  sheaths,  twisted  together,  showed 
a  breaking  strain  of  G5  pounds,  while  the  lower  stem  portion  of  the  plant  broke  at 
20  xiounds.  The  length  of  the  sheath  is  from  12  to  15  inches.  The  grass  would  make 
a  very  strong  paper,  of  better  i^uality  than  ordinary  wrapping  paper,  aud  no  doubt 


Fig.  97. — Prairie  grass,  Si'oroholus  cr>ji)tandriis. 


304  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

■RTitiug  jiaper  could  be  made  from  it.  As  before  stated,  the  iiber  is  too  slioit,  how- 
ever, to  be  spun  iuto  cordage  or  yarns,  though  when  rubbed  out  in  the  hand  it  is  fine, 
but  brittle  and  harsh  to  the  touch. 

"Where  the  old  growth  is  thick  on  the  ground  the  fiber  is  so  tough  and  strong 
that  it  can  not  be  cut  with  a  common  mowing  machine."  {J.  W.  Coojier.)  The  leaves 
of  the  inflorescence,  which  are  the  fibrous  part  of  the  plant,  are  too  short,  however, 
for  employment  as  a  fiber. 

Sporoboliis  indicus.     Swei:t  Grass. 

CoMMOX  NAMES. — Carpet  grass;  droi)-seed  grass;  Parramatta,  or  tussock  grass 
(ill  Australia).     The  Brazilian  name  is  Capim  viaiirdo. 

A  tufted,  wiry,  erect  perennial,  1  to  3  feet  high,  with  narrow,  densely  flowered, 
spike-like  jtanicles  4  to  12  inches  long.  This  grass  is  widclj'^  distributed  throughout 
the  warmer  temperate  regions  of  the  world,  and  has  become  quite  common  in  many 
parts  of  the  Southern  States,  growing  in  scattered  tufts  or  patches  about  dwellings 
and  in  dry,  open  fields.     Occurs  in  Brazil. 

Structural  FiBEU. — While  the  plant  is  not  used  industrially  in  this  country,  it 
is  employed  in  southern  Brazil  as  a  straw  })lait  material.  "The  stalks  from  the 
flower  to  the  last  knot  serve  for  the  manufacture  of  straw  plait  used  for  hats  and 
other  articles  made  of  straw,  which  nre  softened  by  means  of  sulphur.  It  grows 
easily  but  jirospers  best  in  liumid  places.     Blooms  late  in  winter  and  in  spring. 

Spruce  (see  Picca  spp). 

Spurge  laurel.     Ikqilinc  rannahina. 

Stenosiphon  virgatuni. 

An  uncultivated  ])lant,  belonging  to  the  Onagracca-,  found  in  Texas,  where  it  grows 
to  a  height  of  6  feet.  A  correspondent  sent  stalks  to  the  ])ci)artment,  several  years 
ago,  as  a  possible  fiber  plant,  as  the  fiber,  being  fine  and  silky,  Avas  thought  to  be  of 
value.     Like  many  fibers  of  this  class  the  si)ecic8  is  more  interesting  than  useful. 

Sterculia. 

Nearly  all  the  species  of  this  genus  are  trees,  many  of  them  of  large  size,  and 
most  abundant  in  Asia  and  the  Asiatic  islands.  They  are  also  found  sparingly 
in  America,  Africa,  and  Australia,  and  for  the  most  part  inhabit  tropical  countries. 
The  inner  bark  of  the  SterciiUas  is  composed  of  tough  fiber  which  is  not  affected  by 
wet.     Some  of  the  species  are  as  follows : 

Sterculia  acerifolia.    The  Flame  Tree. 

Exogen.     t^terculiacccr.     A  very  large  tree. 

This  species  is  a  native  of  New  South  Wales,  and  is  a  lofty  tree.  Dr.  Ciuilfoyle 
states  that  the  bark  is  fully  '2  inches  thick  when  the  tree  is  full  grown,  and  furnishes 
bast  for  a  most  beautiful  lace-hke  texture.  The  fiber  is  very  simply  prepared  by 
steeping,  and  is  suitable  for  cordage  and  nets,  ropes,  mats,  baskets,  etc.,  and  is  use- 
ful as  a  paper  material.  The  tow  ia  of  a  very  elastic  nature,  and  is  suitable  for 
upholstering  purposes,  such  as  stuffing  mattresses  or  pillows.  The  specimens  wore 
received  from  Victoria  (Phil.  Int.  Exh.,  1876),  and  were  prepared  by  Dr.  Guilfoyle. 
The  sjiecies  is  found  in  many  portions  of  the  globe.    Other  Australian  species  follow. 

SterciiVia  diver sifoUa,  the  Victorian  bottle  tree,  also  known  as  Currijonfj,  is  a  native 
of  Victoria,  and  is  a  stout,  glabrous  tree,  having  a  peculiar  bottle-shaped  trunk. 
The  bast  is  similar  to  that  of  S.  acerifolia,  but  coarser  in  texture.  The  fiber  is  suit- 
able for  coarse  ropes  and  cordage.  It  would  also  make  fine  matting,  and  could  be 
used  as  a  paper  material.     Specimens  from  Dr.  Guilfoyle's  Victoriiiu  <olIection. 

Stereulia  riipestris,  the  Queensland  bottle  tree,  is  a  native  of  (i)ueenslaud,  where 
the  tree  attains  a  considerable  height,  and  has  an  enormous  bottle-shaped  trunk, 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  305 

from  which  it  derives  its  name.  Its  baric  is  tliick  aud  strong,  and  can  he  nscd  for 
the  same  purposes  as  the  other  species.     (Dr.  Gmlfoijle.    Victorian  collection.) 

Sterciilia  Jurida  is  the  ''sycamore''  of  the  colonists.  This  species  is  a  native  of 
New  South  Wales.  The  tree  is  of  large  size,  resembling  acerij'olia  in  appearance. 
''Its  bark  is  a  valuable  fiber-yielding  material."  In  New  South  Wales  it  is  made  up 
into  a  variety  of  fancy  articles  by  the  colonists.  The  fiber  is  the  inner  bark  of  the 
tree,  and  when  freshly  stripped  has  a  lace-like  character  which  adapts  it  for  fancy 
work.     {Dr.  GiiilfoyJe.    Victorian  collection.) 

Sferculia  foiida :  This  species,  a  native  of  New  South  Wales,  is  also  indigenous  in 
the  East  Indies  and  the  Malayan  Peninsula.  The  fiber  is  similar  to  the  preceding, 
and  is  manufactured  into  mats,  bags,  cordage,  and  paper.  8.  quadrifida  is  another 
New  South  Wales  species,  also  represented  in  Dr.  Guilfoyle's  collection.  ^Specimens 
of  the  above  are  in  the  Mus.  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag. 

Sterculia  caribaea.    Red  Mahoe. 

Found  in  Trinidad  and  New  Caledonia.     A  large  tree,  40  to  50  feet  in  height. 

Bast  Fibek. — The  fiber  is  of  considerable  strength,  but  it  requires  retting  to 
get  out  the  mucilage  which  is  so  common  in  SterciiUacecr,  Tiliacecv,  and  Malvaccw. 
It  could  not  l)e  treated  commercially  unless  large  areas  were  planted,  as  the  trees, 
though  common  in  places,  are  by  no  means  numerous. 

Sterculia  guttata. 

Native  of  ^Malabar.  Found  in  India,  Eastern  and  Western  Peninsulas,  Ceylon,  and 
the  Andaman  Islands. 

The  bark  of  trees,  of  the  tenth  year,  is  employed  by  the  natives  on  the  western 
coast  of  India  for  making  coarse  clothing  and  cordage.  The  tree  is  felled,  its 
branches  are  lopped,  the  trunk  is  cut  into  pieces  6  feet  long,  a  longitudinal  incision 
is  made  in  each  piece,  aikl  the  bark  is  opened,  taken  off  entire,  chopped,  washed, 
and  sun  dried.  In  this  state,  it  is  very  pliable  and  tough,  and  is  used  for  clothing 
without  further  preparation.     (Spou.) 

Sterculia  villosa.     The  Udal. 

Northwestern  India,  Bengal,  and  Malabar;  tropical  Himalayas. 

Fiber. — Royle  states  that  the  bast,  or  rather  all  the  layers,  can  be  stripped  from 
the  bottom  to  the  top  of  the  tree  with. the  greatest  facility,  and  fine,  pliable  rope  is 
made  from  the  inner  layers,  while  the  outer  ones  yield  a  coarse  rope,  which  is  strong 
and  durable  aud  little  injured  by  water. 

A  A'aluable  fiber  is  obtained  from  the  liber,  Avhich  is  made  into  ropes  and  l)ags.  It 
is  very  strong,  aud  in  southern  India  and  Bui'mah  is  much  esteemed  for  the  purjiose 
of  making  elephant  ropes.  In  northern  India  the  ropes  from  this  fiber  are  chiefly 
used  in  making  cattle  halters.  The  rope  is  said  to  l)ecomc  stronger  for  a  time  from 
being  frequently  wetted,  and  if  constantly  exposed  to  moisture  it  seldom  lasts  more 
than  eighteen  months.  A  good  paper  is  said  to  havt^  been  made  from  it  in  India,  but 
the  samples  of  fiber  sent  to  Europe  were  not  favorably  rei->orted  on  as  paper-making 
materials.     (See  Kew  Bull.,  1879.) 

Compared  with  jute,  according  to  Dr.  Roxburgh's  experiments,  Sterculia  fil)er  (.S'.  vil- 
losa) stood  a  strain  of  53  pounds,  against  68  pounds  for  jute,  Corchorus  oUtorius — ('.  cap- 
sidaris  sustaining  1  pound  less.  Among  other  Indian  species  may  be  mentioned  S.  colo- 
rata,  inferior  fiber,  harsh  and  wiry.  Reported  as  a  worthless  fiber  by  Hemp  and  Flax 
Com.  of  Agri.  Hort.  Soc.  of  India.  .S'.  Uincenfolia,  fiber  made  from  it  in  the  Panjab.  ^S*. 
iirtns  yields  a  good  fiber,  samples  of  which  were  sent  to  the  Paris  Expos.  1878,  employed 
for  paper.     <S'.  tomentosa  is  an  Angola  species  which  is  said  to  aiford  excellent  fiber. 

Stinging  nettles. 

These  plants  belong  to  the  genus  Urlica,  Laportea,  etc.,  the  stingless  nettles,  or 
cultivated  species,  being  the  Boehmerias,  etc.  (see  Nettle).      Urtica  dioica  is  the  com- 
mon stinging  nettle  of  Eurojie. 
12247— :N^o.  9 20 


306         USEFUL  FIBER  PLANTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 

Stipa  tenacissima.     Esparto  Grass. 

Syn.  Macrochloa  tenacissima. 

Endogen.     Graminew.     A  wild  and  cultivated  grass. 

Native  and  common  names. — Alfa  or  Haifa  (Alj;.);  Esparto,  Spanish  and 
(commercial)  Englisli;  Sparte,  Frencli. 
Native  of  north  Africa,  Spain,  and  Portugal,  and  is  said  to  bo  found  in  Greece.  A 
plant  occupying  a  large  area  in  northern  Africa  and  the  southern  Mediterranean 
provinces.  In  Algeria,  in  tlie  provinces  of  Oran  Algiers  and  Constantine.  In  Spain 
it  covers  an  area  of  iilateau  land  conijirised  within  a  triangle  including  Malaga,  Va- 
lencia, and  Madrid.  It  is  ahundant  in  the  ])rovinces  of  Mercia  and  Alineira.  Intlie 
south  of  Portugal,  in  the  Iberian  i)eniiisula.  In  Morocco  it  borders  the  seacoast  as 
far  as  Tangiers,  on  thehigh  Daharian  plateau  wliich  succeeds  that  of  Oranais.  This 
cultivation  has  extended  into  south  France.  The  plant  is  said  to  have  been  seen  in 
Greece,  but  this  is  contradicted  by  Algerian  authorities. 

It  thrives  in  varied  situations  in  the  regions  where  it  grows,  from  the  level  of  the 
seacoast  to  elevations  of  6,000  feet,  frequently  crossing  the  foothills,  Avhere  it  forms 
their  only  vegetation.  It  is  also  found  in  deep  forests,  and  abounds  in  such  desert 
regions  as  lie  to  the  southeast  of  Laghaout  and  Tripoli.  The  plant  is  frequently 
confounded  with  Lygeum  sparium,  under  the  name  Sparte  {" Seniioc"  or  Alb((rdine 
Alg.),  and  also  with  Ampclodrsnios  Iruax.  or  the  Diss,  these  three  species  being  the 
abundant  grasses  of  the  north  of  Africa.  Haifa  or  esparto  is  a  perennial  plant  with 
branching  roots,  which  form  first  a  homogeneous  stump  Avhich  becomes  a  tuft  when 
the  center  roots  perish.  The  exterior  branches,  which  also  form  a  tuft,  separate  as 
tliey  become  further  removeil  from  each  other  and  their  center  and  become  the 
nucleus  of  new  clusters,  which  likewise  form  tufts,  which  are  hollowed  out  at  the 
center  and  send  out  branches,  which  in  their  turn  form  other  tufts  if  the  soil  i)ermit. 
The  leaf,  which  Aaries  Avith  the  age  and  condition  of  the  plant,  is  from  25  to  120 
centimeters  in  length,  but  has  a  mean  length  of  from  .")0  to  80  centimeters.  During 
growth  it  spreads  out  in  .an  even,  ribbon-shaped  blade.  Its  upper  surface  is  relieved 
by  seven  large  veins,  which  are  separated  by  deep  furrows  and  entirely  covered  by 
down  or  hair.  The  under  surface,  which,  by  torsional  movement  in  the  length  of  the 
leaf,  is  turned  upward,  is  smooth,  glossy,  and  without  salient  veins.  Under  the 
influence  of  drought  the  two  halves  of  the  leaf  meet  and  form  a  tough,  dry,  and  rush- 
like blade.  The  point  of  the  leaf  is  sharp,  rough,  prickly,  and  slightly  yellow. 
Upon  healthy,  strong  plants,  and  during  the  wet  season,  the  leaves  are  of  a  fine 
dark  green.  Under  the  inllucnce  of  drought  this  green  becomes  cancscent.  The 
leaves  of  the  esparto  are  persistent,  remaining  at  least  two  years  upon  the  plant. 
When  old  they  become  a  prey  to  cryptogams.  Disintegration  commences  at  the 
point  of  the  blade  and  finally  covers  the  whole.  These  darkened  leaves  cumber  the 
stalk  and  form  a  veritable  gray  felt,  through  which  the  young  leaves  emerge.  Usu- 
ally the  old  leaves  turn  yellow  and  are  disarticulated  from  the  sheatli  at  the  point 
at  which  they  join.  An  early  attack  made  upon  the  points  of  the  leaves  by  cryp- 
togams depreciates  the  esparto,  and  it  is  distinguished  in  accordance  with  these 
attacks  and  their  eft'ects,  first,  as  the  green  point;  second,  sharp,  dry  point,  jxxHte 
cTori'e  (golden  point) ;  third,  gray  point  and  disintegrated  by  cryptogams.  (L'Halfa. 
Pamphlet,  Paris  Exp.,  1889,— Extraits  d'une  Etude  sur  I'Halfa,  par  L.  Trabut,  1888.) 
Structural  Fiber. — The  fibers  arc  extremely  fine,  uniform,  transparent,  and 
from  the  purity  of  the  cellulose  the  substance  is  admirablj'  adapted  for  paper  mak- 
ing. The  commercial  product  varies  from  1.^  inches  to  2  feet  or  more  in  length,  is 
greenish  yellow  in  color,  presenting  the  appearance  of  a  smooth,  stiff,  taiieriug  stem. 
While  its  commercial  use  is  in  paper  making,  it  has  been  employed  in  the  countries 
where  grown  for  the  manufacture  of  cordage,  sandals,  basket  work,  etc.  It  has  also 
been  used,  after  crimping,  as  a  mattress  material,  and  it  is  said  that  the  fiber  has 
been  employed  in  the  Scotch  carpet  trade  in  Kidderminster  and  Brussels  goods. 
The  chemical  constituents  of  the  fiber  are  said  to  be  yellow  coloring  matter,  12;  red 
matter,  6;  gum  and  resin,  7;  salts  forming  the  ash,  1.5;  pajier  stock,  73.5. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  307 

P^xi'EUiMENTs  IN  THE  UNITED  St.vtk.s. — Au  eHort  wit.s  uiadc  ill  1868  to  iutroduco 
the  c'tilture  of  Esparto  into  this  country.  Seed  was  obtained  from  Paris  seedsmen, 
which  was  distributed  in  the  South  for  phxutiug  on  the  hill  lands  and  mountain 
slopes,  but  uothiny  practical  was  accomplished.  Yiewiu!;'  the  culture  in  this  coun- 
try from  the  agricultural  standpoint,  there  is  no  doubt  it  will  thrive  in  many  locali- 
ties, but  from  the  economic  standpoint  it  can  never  become  an  American  industry. 

Soil,  climate,  and  culture. — The  plant  does  not  thrive  in  clay,  on  marsh  lands, 
or  in  a  pebbly  soil.  Soils  impregnated  Avith  oxide  of  iron  are  favorable,  and  cal- 
careous soils  produce  strong  liber.  On  argillaceous  soils  (decomposed  shale,  etc.) 
the  grass  is  shorter  but  the  tiber  stronger.  It  requires  a  decidedly  hot  and  some- 
what dry  climate.  Spon  states  that  the  plant  succeeds  best  at  moderate  elevations 
on  the  seacoast,  none  comparing  with  those  where  the  plant  is  nnder  the  immediate 
influence  of  the  sea  air.  Here  the  fiber  is  fine,  short,  and  even.  At  the  same  time, 
much  finer  Esparto,  with  longer  leaf,  is  found  inland,  but  instead  of  being  all  of 
uniformly  sujierior  kind  the  prime  will  form  only  one-half  or  one-fifth  even  of  the 
whole,  the  remainder  being  coarse  and  rank.  Sunshine  is  eminently  beneficial,  if 
not  essential.  The  coast  grass  is  preferred  by  pax>er  makers,  Avhile  the  longer  growth 
from  the  interior  is  sought  after  for  making  sieves,  baskets,  etc. 

The  plant  is  propagated  by  seed,  by  transplanting  old  plants,  and  by  burning  over 
the  tracts.  ''The  surface  portions  are  alone  affected  l)y  the  fire,  the  stalks  sending 
up  a  vigorous  growth,  producing  in  five  years  a  lialfa  much  sought  after,  the  haJfa 
hlanc,  the  flexible  leaves  of  which  are  used  in  manufactures."  (Trabitt.)  When 
transplanted,  in  autumn,  the  roots  are  divided  into  several  j)ieces  and  set  out  in  rows 
2  feet  apart  and  about  8  inches  in  the  row.  Spoil  states  that  transplanted  plants 
are  productive  in  six  to  eight  years,  while  from  the  seed  no  return  may  be  expected 
before  twelve  years. 

HARVE.STING. — The  leaf  of  the  halfa,  when  thorcjughly  developed,  is  conqjosed  of 
two  parts,  the  Ijlade  or  lamina  and  the  sheaf,  which  are  united  by  articulation.  The 
tissues  arc  not  continuous;  the  innumerable  fibers,  which  give  the  blade  its  remark- 
able solidity,  cease  suddenly  on  a  line  with  this  articulation.  By  a  slight  thrust  the 
blade  is  separated  from  the  sheath.  This  ease  of  disarticulation  is  the  starting  point 
of  all  the  processes  of  stripping  or  extraction.  The  blades  can  be  gathered  by  hand 
if  a  stout  pair  of  gloves  be  worn,  and  in  this  way  the  more  carefully  selected.  This 
is  by  far  the  best  method  if  we  Avould  preserve  the  plant,  but  it  is  not  always  prac- 
ticed. A  laborer  does  not  accomplish  so  much  in  this  waj'  as  by  the  old  way  of  beat- 
ing them  with  a  small  stick,  which  is  followed  entirely  in  factories,  and  has  been 
from  the  most  remote  periods.  The  laborer,  having  in  his  left  hand  a  stick  40  centi- 
meters in  size,  with  a  leather  strap  at  the  handle,  seizes  a  handful  of  leaves  with  his 
right  hand,  wraps  them  around  the  stick,  which  is  held  obliquely,  and  then  pulls 
strongly  with  both  his  hands.  Numberless  blades  become  disarticulated,  and  two 
or  three  roots  of  the  stock  break  and  come  with  them.  The  laborer  passes  his  right 
hand  under  the  lower  edges  up  the  blade  and  encounters  the  pendant  rootlets,  which 
he  throws  away  with  the  leaves  that  adhere  to  them,  keeping,  if  possible,  only  the 
disarticulated  blades,  of  which  he  makes  a  bunch  or  " manoqiie''  by  putting  together 
the  product  of  several  bunches.  Notwithstanding  this  first  sorting,  the  halfd  carries 
with  it  to  the  factory  many  sheafs.  The  ends  of  the  stalk  and  the  sheaths  are  nsed 
as  forage,  and  are  gathered  with  the  plants  that  are  used  for  this  pur[)08e.  Horses 
and  camels  are  very  fond  of  the  base  of  the  sheath.  When  halfd  has  been  dried, 
assorted,  and  classified,  it  is  weighed,  baled,  and  subjected  to  hydrostatic  pressure; 
then  it  is  taken  to  the  seaboard  and  exported.  ^ 

An  industrious  laborer  will  average  from  300  to  400  kilograms  of  green  halfa  in  a 
day,  a  native  from  150  to  200,  a  woman  or  old  man  100,  children  12  or  15  years  old 
from  35  to  50  kilograms.  The  same  method  of  gathering  lialfa  is  practiced  through- 
out the  halfa  region,  and  there  seems  to  have  been  no  change  in  it  since  the  time  of 
Pliny.  This  gathering  by  means  of  the  batonnet  or  stick  will  not  be  given  up  until 
a  machine  shall  have  been  invented  which  will  yield  a  larger  return.     (Trabut.) 


308  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

CoMMEiiCiAL  ASPECTS. — Atcordiug  to  Ido  »&  Christie's  Lontlon  Circular  for  July 
1,  1896,  over  200,000  tons  of  Esparto  was  imported  into  the  Uuited  Kiugdoin  during 
the  year,  worth  froui  £3  to£5  per  ton.  No  largo  (luantities,  however,  are  brought  to 
this  couutry,  as  the  value  of  Esjiarto  aud  other  grasses  imported  for  paper  stock  for 
the  year  ending  June,  1895,  reached  only  about$l,500.  For  further  accounts,  see  Rept. 
U.  S.  Dept.  Ag.,  1868:  Spon's  Euc,  Div.  III. 

Stipa  spp. 

>S.  semiharhata  is  a  native  of  Tasmania.  Spon  states  that  "after  the  seed  has 
ripened  the  upper  part  of  the  stem  breaks  into  the  iiber,  which  curls  loosely  aud 
hangs  down.  The  quality  of  fiber  in  this  state  must  be  inferior  to  what  it  would 
become  under  proper  treatment.'' 

S.  (jiganiea  is  a  closely  allied  but  taller  species,  conlined  to  Spain  aud  I'ortugal. 
In  Australia  occur  S.  setacea,  S.  j)ubesceiis,  and  S.  viicrantha;  in  Argentina  several  other 
species  are  found,  but  they  are  not  especially  regarded  for  their  fiber. 

Stout  spike-rush.     Elcocharin  sphacelata. 

Stramanthe  sanguinea  (see  Maranta). 

Stra-w  plait,  Commercial. 

The  art  of  plaiting  straw,  the  stems  of  grasses,  aud  the  leaves  of  i)alms  and  simi- 
lar plants  is  almost  aa  old  as  the  human  race,  for  plaiting  was  practiced  before 
■weaving,  and  became  knowu  when  primitive  mau  laid  off  the  skins  of  animals  for 
clothing  and  adopted  tissues  made  from  animal  and  vegetable  fibers.  Commercial 
straw  plait,  however,  is  understood  to  mean  material  produced  by  braiding  the  split 
stems  of  wheat,  rye,  barley,  and  rice,  these  l)raids  or  plaits  being  employed,  in  the 
manufacture  of  hats. 

The  finest  straw  plait  is  the  Italian  or  Tuscan,  aiul  is  largely  jiroduccd  i'rom  wheat 
straw.  Bohemian  straAv  plait  is  also  made  from  wheat  straw.  InJajian  and  China, 
rice  straw  is  largely  used  for  this  purjiose,  though  considerable  barley  straw  is  also 
utilized.  In  our  own  country  the  braiding  of  straw  has  been  an  industry  in  past 
time,  though  chietly  prepared  by  the  women  of  the  household;  and  as  late  as  thirty 
or  forty  years  ago  it  was  quite  an  industry  in  ^Massachusetts.  The  large  manufac- 
turers of  straw  goods  in  this  couutry,  however,  rely  upon  the  imported  article  for 
their  plait.  The  principal  countries  iiroducing  commercial  straw  plait  are  Italy, 
France,  Germany,  Austria,  China,  and  Japan.  For  further  information  see  Triti- 
cum  vuhjarc,  Hordeiim  disiichiun,  Secale  cereale,  and  Oryza  saliva  in  this  work.  See 
also  Poa prafensis  and  Sporobohis  indiciis,  among  grasses  used  for  the  same  purpose. 

*  Specimens  of  straw  plait,  in  series,  are  shown  in  the  museum  of  the  Dejiartment 
of  Agriculture. 

Streaked  lantei-n  flo-wer.     AlmtiUm  s/ridttan. 

Streblus  asper. 

Exogen.      I'lticucea-.     A  rigid  shrub,  or  gnarled  tree. 

Native  names. — Op-nai  (Burm.);  Geia-neiul  (Ceyl.);  Ton  Khoi  (Siam). 

Widely  distributed  throughout  India,  Ceylon,  and  tropical  Asia,  and  knowu  under 
many  native  names. 

Bast  Fihei:. — From  the  bark  is  obtained  a  fiber  similar  to  that  from  Bronasouetia 
papyriftra,  from  which  pajjcr  is  made  in  Siam.  The  process  of  manufacture  is  sim- 
ple. The  smaller  branches  of  the  tree  are  cut,  and  steeped  in  water  for  two  or  three 
days.  The  Ijark  is  then  stripjied  oti',  and  l)rought  in  bundles  and  sold  to  persons  who 
make  the  paper.  The  bunches  of  bark  are  put  in  water  for  two  or  three  days  by  the 
paper  maker,  and,  having  been  cleansed  from  dirt,  are  taken  out  and  steamed  over  a 
slow  fire  for  two  days,  a  little  clean  stone  lime  being  sprinkled  through  the  bark. 
It  is  then  steeped  in  water  in  earthen  jars,  aud  more  lime  is  added.     After  a  few 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE. 


309 


days  it  is  taken  out  of  tlae  jars,  and  having  been  ■well  washed  to  free  it  from  the 
lime,  it  isl^eateuAvith  a  wooden  mallet  (for  about  two  hours)  until  it  becomes  a  mass 
of  ijulp.  A  frame  of  netting  about  6^  feet  long,  and  of  width  varying  from  18  to  5 
inches,  is  set  afloat  in  water,  and  the  pulp,  having  first  been  again  mixed  up  in 
water,  is  skillfully  poured  out  outo  the  frame  so  as  to  be  equally  distributed  over  it. 
The  frame  is  then  lifted  out  of  the  Avater,  and  a  small  wooden  roller  is  run  over  the 
surface  of  the  pulp.  By  this  process  the  water  is  squeezed  out  and  the  pulp  jiressed 
together.  The  frame  with  the  pulp  on  it  is  then  set  to  dry  in  the  sun.  In  the  course 
of  some  ten  hours  it  is  quite  dry,  and  the  sheet  of  paper  can  then  be  lifted  oft"  the 
frame.  It  now  only  remains  to  smooth  the  surface.  This  is  done  by  applying  a  thin 
paste  of  I'ice  flour  to  the  sur- 
face, and  then  rubbing  it  down 
with  a  smooth  stone.  (Kew 
Bull.,  March,  1888.) 

Stringy  bark,  The.     Eu- 

calyptnx  ohJiqua. 

Structural  fiber  (see 
Classification  of  Fibers, 
page  25). 

Sufet  bariala  (Iiul.). 
Si  da  rho  )nh  ifo  I  la . 

Sugar    cane    fiber    (see 

Saccharum  officinarmn). 


Sujjado     (Pers.) 
cus  cannabinus. 


Ilibis- 


Fig.  98. — Tacca  piiinatijida,  young  plant. 


Sumauma  ( B  r az . ) .    Erio- 
(lendron  samauma. 

Sunflower  fiber  (see  Re- 
lianthus). 

Sunn  hemp.     Crotalaria 
juncea. 

Surface  fiber  (see  Classi- 
fication of  Fibers,  page 

25). 

Swamp    rose     mallow^. 

Hibiscus  in oscheutos. 

S'wet  bariala  (Ind,).     tSida  rhombifolia. 

Sword  rush  (see  Lepidospcrma). 

Taag  ( Ind. ).     Crotalaria  Juncea, 

Tabago  silk  grass  (Trin.).     Furcra-a  cubcnsis. 

Tacca  pinnatifida. 

A  genus  of  pereunial  herbs  found  in  tropical  America,  Asia,  Africa,  the  Indian 
Archipelago,  and  the  Pacific  Islands.  T.  pinnatifida  is  an  East  Indian  and  New  Hol- 
land species,  growing  in  open  places  near  the  sea.     (See  fig.  98.) 

Structural  Fiber. — The  leafstalks  are  emjiloyed  as  a  plaiting  material  for  hats, 
and  ia  used  by  the  Societv  Islanders  for  bonnets.     Also  made  into  brooms. 


310  USEFUL   FIBER   PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

Tah-lah-kul-kel  (Seminole).     Sahal  palmetio. 

Tahuari  (Peru).     See  Couratari  tmiari. 

Takachii  (Hopi).     Hilaria  jamesii. 

Talhuari  (Peru).     See  Couratari  tauari. 

Tal,  Tari  (Hind.),  and  Tal-gas  (Ceyl.).     BoraHsus  JiaheUifer. 

Talipot  palm  (Ceyl.).     See  Corypha  nmhracuUfera. 

Tampico  fiber  (see  Agave  heteracantha). 

Tan  and  Htan  (Burm.).     Borassus  flahellifer. 

Tang-tiau  (China).     Cala)niis  rotaiu/. 

Tanner's  cassia.     Cassia  auriculata. 

Tapoto  (New  Zea.).     ^ee  Phormiinn. 

Tappa  cloth.     Also  written  Tapa  and  Kapa.     See  Bronssonetia. 

Refer  also  to  tlivision  C.  Natural  Textures,  Economic  classification  of  uses,  p.  31, 
Introduction.  .See  Brachijsiegia,  Couratari,  Daphne,  Hibiscus,  Lagetta,  etc.,  for  otlier 
cloth  .substitutes. 

Tarapota  (Peru).     Iriariea  veniricosa. 

Tarariki.     I^ew  Zealand  llax.     See  Bhormium. 

Tataja  (( 'Olunibia).     See  Couratari. 

Tauary  (Braz.).     See  Couratari, 

Taxodiuni  distichum. 

The  cypress  of  North  Carolina,  which  has  a  range  from  Virginia  southward  to 
Florida  and  westward  to  Texas.  A  specimen  of  its  fibrous  inner  bark  was  sent  to  the 
Department  for  the  W.  C.  E.,  1893.  Itmight  be  twisted  into  coarse  cordage  for  local 
nses,  but  is  not  utilized  as  far  as  can  be  learned. 

Tchou  (China).     T.s-o,  so,  shoo,  a  plant  or  tree. 

Tchou-ma  (China).     Boehmeria  nivea. 

Teale  (Egypt).     Hibiscus  eannahiniis. 

Tea  plant  (Fla.).     Sida  rhomhifolia. 

Tecoma  viniinalis. 

Formerly  Icuowu  as  Bignonia  riminalii,  the  most  commonly  used  name,  whicli  see. 

Tecum  (Braz.).     See  Bactris  setosa  and  Astrocaryum  tucuma. 

TefF  (see  Boa  ahyssinica). 

Tekapu  (New  Zea.).     Cehnisia  coriacea. 

Tha-ma-chok  (Burm.).     Ahutilon  indicum. 

Theobroma  cacao.     Cocoa  or  Chocolate  Tree. 

Exogen.     BiiUnvracco'.     A  tree,  16  to  18  feet. 
Native  of  tropical  America,  and  in  cultivation  spread  over  the  West  Indies  and  the 
more  northern  countries  of  South  America.     Source  of  the  cocoa  and  chocolate  of 
coiamerce. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  311 

Fiber. — The  bast  yields  ft,  good  fiber,  samples  of  which  are  preserved  iu  the  Mu- 
seum of  the  Department.  J.  H.  Hart,  of  Triuidad,  says,  however,  that  the  tree  is 
too  valuable  ever  to  be  cut  for  its  fiber. 

Theonietl  (Yuc).     Agave  vivipara. 

Thespesia  populnea. 

Exogcn.     Malcavea.     A  tree,  40  to  50  feet. 

The  species  is  comuion  on  the  sea  shores  of  many  tropical  countries,  as  the  West 
Indies  and  South  America,  the  Pacific  Islands,  western  Africa,  and  India.  In  the  lat- 
ter country  it  is  largely  cultivated  along  roadsides.  It  yields  iu  India  a  gum,  a  dye, 
and  an  oil,  and  is  valued  iu  phannaoy.  The  leaves  are  employed  in  Hindoo  religious 
ceremouials.  In  Tahiti  it  is  also  a  sacred  tree,  and  its  leaves  used  in  ceremonials  as 
in  India.  The  wood,  which  is  almost  iudestructil)le  iiuder  water,  has  been  much 
used  in  boat  building;  also  used  for  cabinet  work,  aud  iu  Ceylon  for  gunstocks. 

Fiber. — There  are  many  references  to  the  use  of  its  bark  for  fiber,  but  it  does  not 
appear  to  have  been  specially  valued  as  a  fiber  plant  save  in  Demerara,  where  for- 
merly its  bast  was  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  coftee  bags.  In  India  a  strong 
fiber  is  derived  from  its  bark,  which  is  used  in  the  rough  state  for  coarse  cordage  for 
tying  bundles  of  wood,  etc.  It  is  also  used  for  cordage  in  Burma.  The  fiber,  Avhich 
resembles  the  better  mallow  fibers,  is  very  resistant.  As  the  species  is  a  large  tree, 
its  cultivation  for  fiber  could  never  become  an  industry. 

Thinban  and  Thengben  (Barm.).     Hibiscus  tiliaceus. 

Thinbawle  (Biii-m.).     Eriodendron  anfractuosum. 

Thrinax  argentea.     The  Silver-Top  Palmetto. 

Endogen.     ralma .     A  low-growing  fan  palm,  20  to  40  feet. 

This  is  a  well-known  West  Indian  species,  found  in  Cuba  and  Jamaica  especially, 
but  also  abunelant  in  scmitropical  Florida.  Found  on  the  Florda  keys  as  follows: 
Elliotts,  Largo,  Piney,  Gordon,  Boca  C'hica,  Key  West,  etc.  The  species  of  the 
genus  are  known  as  thatch  jialms,  and  none  of  them  exceeds  20  feet  in  height.  A 
common  name  of  T.  argentea,  in  Jamaica,  is  the  Silver  Thatch  palm.  Known  in  this 
country  also  as  the  Brickley  Thatch,  aud  Brittle  Thatch.  T. parviflora  is  the  Sil- 
ver-top palmetto,  found  on  Florida  keys  from  Bahia  Honda  to  Long  Key.  The  trunk 
is  used  in  making  sponge  and  turtle  •'crawls."     (See  fig.  99.) 

Structui'.al  Fiber. — Both  in  Cuba  and  Jamaica  the  leaves  of  this  species  are 
employed  in  the  manufacture  of  palm  hats,  baskets,  and  fancy  articles  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  leaves  of  Florida  palmettos.  It  has  been  suggested,  however,  that 
these  articles  are  also  made  from  other  species  which  abound  in  the  West  Indies. 
The  tough  leaf  stalks  are  also  employed  iu  manufacture  by  weaving  into  baskets 
and  other  objects.  When  employed  as  thatch  material,  the  entire  leaves  are  used. 
In  Panama,  where  the  palm  is  known  as  Fahna  de  escoha,  its  leaves  are  made  into 
brooms. 

A  few  years  ago  a  correspondent  of  the  Department  in  Cuba  submitted  samples  of 
palmetto  fiber  said  to  have  been  derived  from  Cbamwrops  humiUs  (which  is  the  African 
species  yielding  the  Criti  vegetal  of  connuerce),  but  this  is  doubtless  an  error.  From 
the  fact  that  the  plant,  known  in  Cuba  as  Guano  yavey,  grows  wild,  and  its  leaves 
have  long  been  employed  for  making  fancy  hats,  hampers,  etc.,  it  is  more  than  likely 
a  species  of  Thrinax.  The  stem  of  the  loaf  of  the  Guano  yarey  v.'^as  experimented 
with,  and  the  fiber  extracted  was  made  into  good  cordage.  It  is  doubtful,  however, 
if  fiber  from  the  tough  leaf  stalks  can  be  extracted  at  sufficiently  low  cost  to  compete 
with  the  commercial  leaf  fibers  for  which  there  is  already  adequate  machinery  and 
a  commercial  demand.  The  leaf  stems  of  the  saw  palmetto  are  now  treated  for  their 
fiber  in  Florida,  but  at  best  it  is  a  coarse  and  imperfect  cordage  material. 

In  the  Kew  Mus.  mats  are  shown  from  T.  morrisii  made  iu  Auguilla,  together  with 
a  series  of  baskets,  fancy  articles,  etc.,  from  T.  argentea,  Cuba  aud  Jamaica. 


312 


USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE   WORLD. 


Thuja  gigantea.    Eed  Cedae.    Canoe  Cedar. 

Exogen.     Conifera-.     A  very  large  tree,  90  to  120  feet. 

Native  xajies.— Eed  cedar,  gigantic  red  cedar,  Pacific  red  cedar,  gigantic  cedar, 

sbinglewood,  arbor  vita^  of  California. 

Alaska,  south,  along  the  coast  ranges  and  islands  of  British  Columbia,  through 

"svestern  "Washington  and  Oregon,  and  the  coast  ranges  of  northern  California  to 

Mendocino  County,  extending  to  western  slopes  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  north 


'II 


umi^. 


Fig.  93.— Plant  of  Thrinax  parvijtora. 


Montana.  "Largely  used  for  interior  finish,  fencing,  cabinetmaking,  and  cooperage, 
and  exclusively  used  by  the  Indians  of  the  northwest  coast  in  the  manufacture  of 
their  canoes."     (C.  S.  Sargent.) 

Bast  Fiber. — The  inner  bark  is  a  heavy  layer  of  soft  bast  which  the  Indians  of 
the  North  Pacific  Coast  make  use  of  in  all  of  their  industries.  In  their  houses  it 
frequently  forms  the  roof;  the  mats  made  of  it  serve  for  doors,  for  hangings,  for 
beds,  for  coverings  of  boxes,  and  for  ornamental  purposes.     In  their  costumes  it  is 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  313 

used  for  headdresses  and  liats,  and  an  immense  number  and  variety  of  ceremonial 
headdresses  are  made  from  the  material  shi-edded.  It  also  serves  for  covering  of  the 
body,  for  kilts  or  skirts,  for  cradles  or  cradle  linings,  and  the  soft  pads  that  are 
placed  on  the  heads  of  infants  in  llatteuing  them.  In  their  canoes  the  mat  forms  the 
covering  of  the  seat  and  the  soft  piece  on  which  the  rower  or  paddler  kneels.  In 
fact,  there  is  scai'cely  a  common  industry  among  these  Indians  into  which  this  sub- 
stance does  not  intrude  itself.     (Coulributed  hy  Dr.  0.  T.  Mason.) 

Ti.     New  Zealand,  Gordyline  indivisa.     lu  Tahiti,  C.  terminaUs. 

Tibisiri  fiber  (Br.  Guian.).     MauriUa  flcxuosa, 

Tibouchina  papyrifera. 

Exogen.    Melastomacea\    A  tree. 

Thin,  paper-like  strips  of  bast  from  this  specie  are  preserved  in  the  Bot.  Mus.  Ilarv. 
Univ.,  under  the  name  Lasiandra  pajjyrus.    They  are  creamy  in  color,  and  very  fragile. 

Tiglio  {li.).  =  Tilia. 

Tilia  americana.    Linden.    Basswood. 

Exogen.     Tiliaccce.    A  large  tree,  60  to  125  feet. 

CoMiMON  NAMES. — Basswood,  Am.  linden,  linn,  lime  tree,  bee  tree,  white  lind, 
wicknp,  lein. 

Found  in  New  Brunswick,  west  to  the  eastern  shore  of  Lake  Superior,  and  north 
and  west  to  Lake  Winnipeg  and  the  valley  of  the  Assinuiboine  Eiver,  southward 
through  the  Atlantic  States  to  Virginia  and  the  Alleghany  Mountains,  to  Alabama 
and  Georgia,  west  and  eastern  Dakota,  Nebraska,  and  Kansas,  the  Indian  Territory, 
aud  eastern  Texas. 

"One  of  the  most  common  trees  in  the  northern  forests.  Largely  sawn  into  lum- 
ber, and  under  the  name  of  whitewood,  is  used  in  manufacfnre  of  woodenware, 
cheap  furniture,  the  panels  and  bodies  of  carriages,  and  the  inner  soles  of  shoes. 
One  of  the  principal  woods  used  for  paper  pulp,  but  unfit  for  white  paper."  (C.  S. 
Sargent.) 

Fiber. — The  inner  bark  can  be  readily  peeled  into  long  strips  of  bast,  which  in 
this  country  have  found  occasional  use  as  rough  cordage,  and  for  coarse  woven 
mattings  for  nurserymen  and  florists  with  which  to  protect  hotbeds.  See  T.  cor- 
data,  etc. 

Tilia  cordata,  T.  platyphyllos,  and  T.  vulgaris. 

Syn.  Tilia  europaxi.  ' 

Common   names.— Lime,   linden  (English);    Tilo  (Span.);    Tiglio  (It.);  Tilleu. 
(Fr.). 

The  above  species,  all  of  which  have  been  known  as  T.  enropwa,  are  common  in 
different  portions  of  Europe.  The  small  leaved  form  is  indigenous  to  Britain,  but 
the  large-leaved  variety  is  common  in  the  south  of  Europe.  The  wood  is  used  by 
carvers  and  turners,  and  is  prized  by  instrument  makers  for  sounding-boards. 

Fiber.— Like  the  preceding  species,  the  bast  of  European  lindens  is  readily 
extracted.  It  is  used  in  Russia  in  the  manufacture  of  an  exceedingly  coarse  kind 
of  rope;  for  making  the  matted  shoes  worn  by  the  peasantry,  and  also  for  the  man- 
ufacture of  the  mats  which  are  used  to  a  considerable  extent  by  furniture  dealers 
for  packing.  They  are  also  used  by  gardeners  as  a  covering  or  protection  to  glass 
frames.  For  the  larger  and  better  kinds  of  mats,  trees  8  to  16  years  old  are  used, 
wliich  are  cut  when  full  of  sap  and  the  bark  immediately  separated  from  trunk  and 
branches.  It  is  then  stretched  upon  the  ground  to  dry,  two  or  more  strips  being 
placed  together.  When  required  for  use  simple  soaking  in  water  separates  the  cor- 
tical layers,  the  best  of  which  are  in  the  interior  and  the  coarsest  on  the  outside. 
As  many  as  14,000,000  pieces  of  matting  have  been  produced  in  Russia  alone  in  a 


314  USEFUL    FIBER   PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

single  year,  as  these  mats  are  a  considerable  article  of  export.  Their  manufacture 
is  largely  confined  to  Russia;  Sweden,  however,  has  furnished  a  portion  of  the  mats 
exported.  The  Swedish  fishermen  use  the  inner  fiber  or  hast  for  the  manufacture  of 
fishing  nets.  Among  the  uses  of  lime-tree  hast  given  by  Savorgnan  and  not  above 
recorded,  are  baskets  and  hampers,  the  prepared  fiber  being  used  for  nets,  hats,  and 
fine  cordage,  coarse  packing  cloth,  and  a  paper  said  to  be  remarlcably  smooth.  The 
Japanese  form,  T.  cordata,  is  much  esteemed  in  .Tapan  for  its  iiber  or  bast,  which 
is  used  for  strings  and  ropes,  and  sometimes  for  making  a  very  coarse  cloth.  An 
important  branch  of  industry  is  the  manufacture  of  mosquito  nets,  tlie  bark  of  this 
species  being  used  for  the  purpose.    No  Indian  species  is  recorded. 

Tillandsia  usneoides.    Southern  Moss. 

Eudogen.     Iiromeliacea\ 

Common  names. — Spanish  moss.  New  Orleans  moss,  Old  man's  beard,  vegetable 
hair;  Barha  de  Palo  (Venez.);  Igan  (Arg.). 

Abounds  in  the  Gulf  States  from  Soutli  Carolina  and  Florida  to  Louisiana,  where 
it  is  seen  hanging  in  dense  gray  masses  from  the  branches  of  the  trees,  upon  which 
it  is  epiphytal.  Common  in  the  West  Indies,  Central  America,  and  portions  of  South 
America,  as  far  south  as  Argentina. 

STRrcTUHAL  FiBER. — This  is  the  whole  plant  after  the  epidermis  has  been  removed. 
It  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  curled  hair,  and  its  production  is  a  recognized  Ameri- 
can industry.  Manufactured  at  present  chiefly  in  Charleston,  S.  C,  and  New 
Orleans,  La.  The  moss  was  formerly  buried  for  a  short  time,  or  thrown  up  in  a  heap 
partially  covered,  to  destroy  the  epidermis.  Cleaning  machines  are  now  used,  how 
ever,  to  remove  the  ei)idermis,  after  which  the  fiber  goes  through  a  dusting  machine 
and  is  subsequently  dyed  a  rich  black.  The  fiber  is  used  iu  this  country  for  genera 
upholstery  purposes.  It  is  used  in  Venezuela  and  in  Brazil  for  the  same  purposes, 
though  iu  the  latter  country  the  imprepared  moss  is  also  employed  as  packing 
material  for  glassware  and  porcelain.     The  plant  is  allied  to  the  pineapple. 

Tilleul  (Fr.)  =  Tilia. 

Tilo  (Spaii.)  =  T//m. 

Tilluk  (liul.).     SaceJiarvm  spontaneiim. 

Tinnivelley  matting  (Iiid.).     Cyperus  corymbosus  and  C.  tegetum. 

Tinospora  cordifolia. 

A  climbing  shrub  belonging  to  the  Menispcrmacew,  found  throughout  trojiical 
India,  the  aerial  roots  of  which  are  used  for  tying  bundles.  The  priucipal  value  of 
the  plant  is  in  pharmacy,  stems,  roots,  and  leaves  being  used.  Its  Hindoo  name  is 
(1  uracil,  or  Giircha,  though  there  are  nearly  a  hundred  Indian  names  of  the  plant  and 
of  parts  of  the  plant. 

Ti-raurika  (Austr.).     Cordyline  atistralis. 

Tisi  (Hind,  and  Beng.).    Linum  usitatissimum. 

Tobago  silk  grass.     Furcum.  eubensis. 

Toi;  also  Ti  (Austr.).     Cord y fine  indivisa. 

Tolotzin,  or  Catena  (Mex.).    Heliocarpus. 

Ton  khoi.     Strehlus  asper. 

Toothe-nai  (Ind.).    Ahutilon  indicum.    See  slIso  Tuthi  nar. 

Totora  (Peru).     See  Typha  augustifolia. 

Totte  de  maguay  fino  (Mex.).     Agave  americana. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  315 

Touchardia  latifolia.    The  Olona  of  Hawaii. 

Exogen.      Urticaccw.     A  shrub,  4  to  8  feet. 

This  species,  allied  to  the  Boehmcria.'i,  is  found  in  deep  ravines  on  all  the  islands 
of  the  Sandwich  Island  group,  but  is  not  common. 

Fiber. — "  This  is  the  oJona  of  the  natives,  which  yields  a  bast  fiber  highly  prized 
for  its  tenacity  and  durability,  and  is  chiefly  employed  ff)r  making  fishing  nets." 
(Hillehrand.) 

The  nets  (of  the  Hawaiians)  made  of  twine  spun  from  the  strong  and  durable  fiber 
of  the  olona  (T.  latifolia)  were  of  many  diff^erent  patterns  and  sizes,  which  may  bo 
divided  into  two  classes — long  nets,  sometimes  over  one  hundred  fathoms  in  length, 
and  bag  nets.  The  long  nets  were  often  drawn  into  large  circles,  so  as  to  inclose 
shoals  of  fish,  and  sometimes  ropes  hundreds  of  fathoms  in  length,  having  dry  ki 
leaves  braided  to  them  by  the  stems  and  hanging  down  in  the  water,  were  used  to 
sweep  around  and  drive  the  fish  into  the  net,  thus  inclosing  thousands  at  one  haul. 
{W.  J).  Alexander.) 

Samples  of  the  unprepared  bast  forwarded  to  the  Department  show  a  fiber  of  great 
strength  and  fineness.  Specimens  subsequently  further  prepared  show  a  fiber#re8em- 
bling  China  grass  and  capable  of  being  spun  into  fine  yarns. 

Toung-chi.     Eice  paper.     See  Aralia. 

Toung-ong  aud  Taung-ong  (Barm.).     Arenga  saceharifera. 

Trachycarpus  excelsus.    Chinese  Coir. 

Endogen.     Falmw.     A  small  fan  palm. 

Said  to  be  a  native  of  Japan,  but  found  in  China  and  other  parts  of  Asia.  Culti- 
vated in  the  province  of  Chekiang.  Introduced  into  other  countries  as  an  orna- 
mental plant. 

FiBKR. — In  China  "  the  fibers  of  the  leaves  are  locally  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
sandals,  brushes,  hats,  matting,  and  cordage,  aud  occasionally  for  textile  fabrics." 
(.Spon.)  The  Kew  Mus.  exhibits  a  rain  coat  and  hat  made  from  the  fiber  of  this  palm 
as  worn  by  the  Chinese ;  also  brushes,  cordage,  aud  other  articles  made  from  the  fiber 
obtained  from  the  bases  of  the  leafstalks. 

*  Specimens  of  fine  chocolate-colored  cordage,  small  ropes,  etc.,  Bot.  Mus.  Harr. 
Univ. 

Trachycarpus  fortune!.     Ohusan  Palm. 

Similar  to  the  preceding,  credited  to  China,  but  according  to  the  Indian  Agricul- 
turist introduced  on  the  Nilghiris,  India.  Can  be  grown  to  any  extent  on  the  Nilghiris 
at  elevations  ranging  from  4,000  to  6,000  feet.  Height,  10  to  15  feet.  (See  fig.  2, 
PI.  VI.) 

Fiber. — The  whole  of  the  trunk  from  the  ground  upward  is  clothed  with  a  thick 
moss  of  structural  fiber  which  can  be  easily  removed  by  hand,  and  only  needs  to  be 
combed  out  and  bundled  in  lengths  to  be  a  most  valuable  article.  Introduced  for 
brush  makiug.     (Indian  Agriculturist,  Feb.,  1893.) 

Traveler's  grass  (Austr.).     See  Gymnostacliys  anceps. 

Treccia  (It.)  (straw  plait).     See  Triticum. 

Tree  mallo^v.     Lavatera  arhorea. 

Trema  orientalis.    Indian  jSTettle  Tree. 

Syn.     Sponia  orientalis. 

Exogen.     Urticaeew.    A  small  evergreen  tree. 

CoMMOX   AND   NATIVE   NAMES.— Charcoal    tree;  Chikun    (Bang.);    Sap-sha-pen 
(Burm.). 
South  India,  Bengal,  southward  to  Travancore  and  Singapore;  common  in  Ceylon, 
Coromandel  coast.     "The  inner  bark  consists  of  numerous  reticulated  fibers   used 


316  USEFUL   FIBER   PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

for  clothing  by  some  of  the  native  races."  (Spou. )  George  Watt  states  that  the  inner 
bark  yields  a  liber  used  for  tying  rafters  or  native  houses,  for  binding  loads,  and  in 
Assam  for  coarse  cloth. 

Trema  wighlii,  regarded  as  a  synonym,  is  included  in  Sjion's  list  nnder  the  name 
Sjyonia  w'ujhili.  and  known  commonly  as  Chitrung.  "This  plant  is  a  native  of  India, 
being  especially  abundant  in  the  Concans.  The  iibrons  bark,  or  bast,  occurs  in  strips 
12  to  30  inches  long,  3  to  15  feet  wide,  and  0.0039  to  0.03  inch  thick.  It  is  used  not 
only  as  bast,  but  also  in  the  manufacture  of  cordage.  This  liber  is  said  to  be  ntil 
izedin  Mauritius  and  Venezuela."'  (Spon.)  A  species  of  Trejjirt  isAalued  for  its  fibrous 
bast  in  Argentina.     (See  Ccllis  orientalis.) 

Triodia  irritans. 

An  Australian  species,  known  as  porcupine  grass,  that  has  been  recommended  as 
a  paper  plant.     It  is  not  noted,  however,  in  Guilfoyle's  list. 

Tristachya  leiostachya.  ^ 

Endogeu.     (h-amhico-. 
Liifgren  states  that  this  is  considered  in  Sao  Paulo,  Brazil,  an  excellent  foragclfor 
all  sorts  of  animals  and  is  eaten  with  avidity.     At  the  summit  of  the  stalk,  as  I'ar  as 
the  flower,  it  contains  a  quantity  of  pure  cellulose.     Grows  in  fields;  flowers  in  May 
to  August;  might  be  useful  for  paper. 

Trithrinax  brasiliensis. 

A  Brazilian  low-growing  palui,  native  of  the  province  of  Rio  Grande;  found  also 
in  Entre  Kios  and  Gorrientes,  Argentina,  where  liber  from  the  leaves  is  made  into 
brooms,  fans,  and  other  articles. 

T.  campestris,  which  is  grown  in  San  Luis  and  Cordoba,  Argentina,  is  used  for  basket 
work,  fans,  etc.     T.  mdurilidfonuis  is  a  New  Granada  sjiecies. 

Triticum  sativum.     Ciltiyated  Wheat. 

This  with  its  many  Aarieties  which  have  been  produced  by  cultivation  is  one  of  the 
most,  if  not  the  most,  important  of  the  true  grasses.  It  is  one  of  the  oldest  of  the 
cultivated  cereals,  the  grains  having  been  found  in  very  ancient  Egyptian  monu- 
ments, dating  back  to  2,500  to  3,000  B.  C.     (F.  Lamson-Scribner.) 

Structukai,  Fiber. — The  straw  of  several  varieties  of  wheat,  including  the 
variety  a'slivum,  is  used  in  many  countries  for  the  manufacture  of  braids,  or  straw 
jjlait.  The  finest  braids,  which  come  from  Italy,  and  which  include  the  celebrated 
Tuscan  plait,  from  Florence,  are  produced  from  varieties  of  wheat  cultivated 
especially  for  the  straw  and  without  regard  to  the  grain.  Wheat  straw  is  likewise 
used  for  braids  in  other  countries  of  southern  Europe  and  in  Germany,  the  Bohe- 
mian liraids  also  being  well  known.  Some  wheat  straw  braid  is  also  produced  in 
China.  The  straw-plait  industry  of  Europe  gives  employment  to  thousands  of 
people,  not  only  in  the  countries  where  the  straw  is  produced,  but  in  England, 
Switzerland,  and  other  countries  which  purchase  the  ])roduct  for  manufacture  into 
hats. 

Tuscany  formerly  sent  abroad  the  finished  hats,  but  now  the  export  is  largely  in 
the  form  of  braid.  The  first  fine  Tuscan  hats  sent  to  England  were  those  worn  by 
the  peasants,  aud  they  are  still  in  common  use  in  Tuscany.  The  work  of  braid- 
ing is  largely  done  by  women  and  children  and  is,  to  that  extent,  a  household 
industry.  It  is  easilj-  accomplished,  though  practice  from  childhood  has  produced 
some  very  expert  braid  makers  In  the  Manual  Hoepli,  M.  A.  Savorgnan  gives  a 
most  interesting  account  of  the  Italian  straw-plait  industry,  from  which  extracts  are 
reproduced. 

The  variety  of  grain  which  is  employed  is  the  so-called  Marzuolo  (Triliciim  saiintm 
rar.  trimestre),  of  which  there  are  two  subvarieties.  The  one  is  very  prolific  in  seed, 
and  is  adapted  for  rather  meager  soil;  the  other  has  less  and  smaller  seed,  but  it  is 
very  fertile.     They  are,  however,  rather  changeable  types,  as  they  easily  merge  into 


DESCRIPTVIE    CATALOGUE  317 

each  other  if  sown  near  ami  thickly  together.  We  tiud  two  qualities  of  seed;  the 
Marzuolo,  which  is  furnished  from  Modena,  also  from  the  mountains  of  Tuscany,  and 
especially  from  Monte-Amiata,  it  being  from  the  latter  place  that  the  seed  most 
adapted  to  a  fine  quality  of  straw  is  procured,  and  the  Semenzuolo,  a  very  small  grain, 
which  is  used  for  hats  and  grows  to  perfection  only  in  the  district  of  Pisa.  The 
Alarziiolo  (meaning  sown  in  March)  wheat  straw  is  not  a  plant  which  differs  much 
from  the  other  varieties  of  grains  having  small  seeds,  and  if  cultivated  under  condi- 
tions favorable  to  the  development  of  the  seed  would  make  good  bread  grain.  With 
us,  however,  the  aim  is  to  lessen  the  production  of  seed  and  cause  the  stem  to  acquire 
length,  iineness,  and  consistency,  thus  rendering  it  valuable.  It  is  the  effort  to 
make  each  seed  produce  one  stem,  which  shall  be  llexible  and  as  long  as  possible. 
Very  little  care  is  required  for  the  grain,  especially  if  sown  very  thick.  The  harvest 
is  never  delayed  until  the  grain  is  perfectly  matured,  but  the  stems  are  drawn  out 
about  the  last  of  May  or  the  first  of  June. 

^  This  uprooting  process  is  generally  given  out  by  contract  to  the  operators.  The 
straw  is  then  tied  in  bundles  and  left  to  dry  under  shelter.  If  the  weather  is  dry, 
the  straw  may  be  si)read  for  three  or  four  days  on  the  ground,  on  an  open  threshing 
floor  or  the  dry  bed  of  a  stream,  so  that  the  sun  and  dew  will  alternate  and  effect  a 
bleaching.  After  this  the  separating  and  arranging  of  the  straw  takes  place.  The 
operator  holding  the  stem  in  one  hand,  takes  hold  of  the  husk  which  contains  the 
barley  seed  with  the  other  and  draws  off  the  top  straw  which  is  attached  to  it  and 
which  serves  ibr  making  fine  hats.  These  are  selected  and  tied  in  bundles  again, 
weighing  100  grams  each,  which  are  afterwards  combined  into  packages  of  6  to  8 
kilos.  The  straw  remaining  after  this  operation  is  useless  for  the  industries,  but  is 
used  for  animals. 

The  production  of  straw  for  hats  reaches  7,000  or  8,000  kilos  per  hectare,  weighed 
when  just  taken  from  the  earth,  but  when  fully  dried,  bleached,  and  separated  the 
real  straw  for  plaiting  weighs  about  1,000  kilos.  It  usually  sells  for  5  or  6  lire  per 
100  bundles.  For  30,000  to  35,000  bundles  1,.500  to  2,000  lire  should  be  received.  Other- 
wise selling  by  weight,  it  brings  1.50  lire  to  2  lire  per  kilo,  equivalent  to  1,500  or  2,000 
lire.  [A  lire  is  about  25  cents.]  After  Tuscany  the  Province  of  Vicenza  ranks  high 
in  this  product.  Switzerland  at  present  exports  the  greater  number  of  straw  hats. 
England  produces  an  immense  quantity  of  these  hats.  From  60,000  to  70,000  per- 
sons are  engaged  in  this  manufacture. 

The  Chinese  wheat  straw  plait  industry  is  located  in  the  provinces  of  Chihli, 
Shansi,  Honan,  and  Shantung,  and  gives  employment  to  many  of  the  poorer  classes 
of  women  and  children,  who  are  al)le  to  produce  from  35  to  40  yards  of  braid  per 
day,  worth  14  to  20  cents.  The  principal  varieties  are  known  as  white  and  black 
Shiugkee,  Shansi,  Shantung  mottled,  and  Honan  mottled.  The  first  sh'ipment  of  35 
bales  of  braid  to  the  United  States  was  in  1873.  In  1886,  6,000  bales  were  shipped, 
a  bale  representing  240  bundles  of  165  feet  each. 

The  cultivation  of  wheat  straw  from  which  the  braid  is  worked,  and  the  manufac- 
ture of  straw  hats  for  water  use,  has  been  a  special  industry  in  the  northern  pro- 
vinces of  China  for  more  than  a  century.  It  was  not  until  after  Tientsin  was  opened 
to  foreign  trade  that  the  farmer  began  to  pay  much  attention  to  the  cultivation  and 
curing  of  the  straw  so  as  to  secure  greater  uniformity  of  color  as  well  as  fineness  of 
quality.  The  great  desideratum  is  to  obtain  as  perfect  a  white  straw  as  possible  by 
means  of  bleaching  in  the  sun.  The  iirocess  is  to  pull  up  the  plants  by  hand  when 
the  grain  is  in  the  milk  and  only  about  half  developed.  Great  care  must  be  taken 
to  prevent  exposure  to  rain.  After  bleaching,  the  straw  is  cut  at  the  first  joint  from 
the  top,  all  below  that  joint  being  useless  for  making  braid.  ( U.  S.  Consul  E,  J. 
Smilhers.) 

Tritoma  spp.     Torch  Lily. 

Endogens.     Liliaccw.     Aloe-like  leaf  cluster. 
The  torch  lilies  are  natives  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  but  distributed  to  other 


318         USEFUL  FIBER  PLANTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 

portions  of  the  globe,  their  elongated  spikes  of  brilliant  scarlet  or  yellow  flowers 
making  them  favorite  ornamental  garden  jjlants. 

The  revised  name  of  this  genus  is  Enipliofia. 

Structural  Fiber. — It  is  said  that  T.  recurvata  and  T.  uvaria  are  utilized  as  liber 
plants  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  The  leaves  are  crushed  and  macerated  in  hot 
water,  when  the  fibers  readily  separate.  "As  fiber  plants  they  were  first  brought 
under  notice  by  me  in  1875,  samjiles  of  five  kinds  having  been  prepared  in  the 
Botanical  Gardens,  and  since  forwarded  to  several  exhibitions.  It  will  be  seen  that 
the  present  specimens  are  of  fair  strength  and  quality,  and  possibly  they  are  capable 
of  being  Avovon  into  fine  textile  fabrics.  The  plants  are  all  quick-growing  peren- 
niaks,  producing  a  wealth  of  long  leafage,  and  are  readily  increased  Tty  root  division 
and  seeds.  With  good  cultivation  they  would  yield  two  crops  per  year,  and  the  fiber 
can  be  obtained  within  a  few  liours  by  boiling  or  steaming  the  leaves.  The  great- 
flowered  Torch  Lily  {Kniphofia  grand'ijlora)  and  the  'Recurved  Torch  Lily'  {Kniphofia 
recurvata)  are  probably  tlie  strongest  and  best  iu  quality,  and  these  give  the  greatest 
jiercentage  of  fiber.  A  letter  front  a  London  firm  of  manufacturers  states  the  value 
of  this  iiber  and  that  of  Sparmannia  africaim  to  be  from  £17  to  £17  10s  per  ton." 
{Dr.  Guilfoyle.)  The  fiber  of  T.  uraria,  known  as  the  Queen's  torch  lily,  furnishes 
a  strong  fiber  of  a  chocolate  color.  The  uses  of  these  libers  in  manufacture  are  not 
stated  in  any  of  the  works  examined  bj'  the  compiler. 

Triumfetta  rhomboidea. 

Endogen.     Tiliacva:.     A  shrub. 

Indian  names, — Chikti  (Hind.);  Bim-ochra  (Beng.). 

The  plants  of  the  genus  are  both  numerous  and  widely  distributed,  abounding  in 
tropical  countries  in  many  parts  of  the  world.  T.  rliomhoulea  is  found  in  tropical 
India  and  Ceylon.  "The  plant  yields  a  soft,  glossy  fiber  which  is  said  to  be  consider- 
ably utilized  in  Madras."  (Watt.)  This  is  a  jute-like  liber,  the  genus  being  very 
closely  allied  to  Corchorus. 

Specimens  of  the  fil)er  of  T,  semitriloha  Avere  received  from  the  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution in  1869,  without  data  save  the  name.  The  fiber  very  closely  resembles  jute 
in  color,  strength,  and  general  characteristics.  This  species  is  grown  in  Trinidad, 
where  it  is  known  as  Cousine  Mahoe,  but  it  is  regarded  more  for  its  medicinal  prop- 
erties than  for  its  fiber.  T,  longicoma  is  a  useful  Brazilian  species,  reported  by 
Lofgreu. 

Tronadora  (Mex.).    Abutilon  incanum. 

Troolie  paim  (Guian.).     Mani carta  saccifera. 

Trumpet  tree.     Cecropia  peltata. 

Tsai-lai  and  Hsele  (Burm.).    Daphne  cannabinum. 

Tsjo  (Jap.).     See  Boelimeria  nivea. 

Tucum  aud  Tecuma  (S.  Am.).    See  Astrocaryum  spp. 

Tukhme-katan  (Pers.)  Linum  usitatissiimim. 

Tule  (California).     Scirpus  lacustris. 

Tulhtula  (Pers.  and  Arab.).    Musa  sapientiim. 

Turu  palm  (Br.  Guian.).     (Enocarpus. 

Tururi  (Peru).     PaulUnia  grandijiora. 

Tuthi-nar  or  Tutti  (Ind.).     Abutilon  asiaticum  and  indicum. 

Tye  plant  of  Australia.     Gommersonia  fraseri. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE. 


319 


Typha  spp.    Cat-tail  Flag. 

Eudogeu.     Typhacew.     A  reed  or  rnsli. 

COMMOX  NAMES. — The  bulrusli  (erroueoiis) ;  cat  tail,  reed  mace,  elephant  grass 
(Eug.);  Massctte  (Fr.);  Bohrkolbe  (Ger.);  ,Sala  miuorc  (It.);  Lana  de  Enea 
(Yenez.);  Totora  {Vgvw). 

A  geuus  of  tall  aquatic  plants  with  long,  tlat  leaves  found  over  a  large  part  of  the 
world,  T.  laiifolia  and  1'.  aiifjuMfolid  are  the  North  American  species,  common  also 
in  Europe,  while  T.  depliantina  and  other 
species  are  found  iu  Asia.  In  this  country 
its  chief  use  is  in  cooperage,  its  leaves 
being  employed  to  fill  open  seams  in  the 
heads  and  between  the  staves  of  barrels. 
Its  fruit  stems,  crowned  with  the  brown- 
ish, velvetymassof  fiber  which  clothes  the 
female  spadix,  are  also  nsed  for  household 
decorative  purposes.  The  down  is  some- 
times used  for  stuffing,  and  at  one  time  a 
cousiderablequantity  of  it  (the  fiber)  was 
secured  commercially  in  New  Jersey. 

Structchal  Fiber. — There  are  so  many 
references  to  the  uses  of  the  plant  as  fiber 
that  a  few  general  statements  will  suffice. 
A  very  soft  and  lino  fiber  has  been  prepared 
from  the  loaves  in  this  country,  experi- 
mentally, but  it  is  of  little  value  compared 
with  many  other  fibers  which  can  be  pre- 
pared from  native  weeds.  "The  tough 
leaves,  dried  and  sjjlit,  are  extensively 
used  to  make  chair  bottoms,  also  woven 
into  baskets  and  mats,  and  even  twisted 
into  strings  and  ropes."  {Dr.  Havard.) 
The  plant  is  noted  in  Venezuela,  where 
the  fibrous  material  borne  on  the  spadix 
is  employed  for  stuffing  pillows.  A  species 
reported  as  T.  dominooisis  is  noted  as  a 
fiber  plant  in  Peru,  where  it  is  called  the 
Totora.  T.  latifolia  and  T.  angusiifolla 
abound  in  Europe,  where  both  the  fiber  of 
the  leaves  and  the  fibrous  substance  of  the 
spadix  have  been  employed,  the  first  as  a 
material  for  making  hats,  baskets,  chair 
bottoms,  etc.,  and  the  latter  for  uphol- 
stery. A  sample  of  its  fiber  prepared  in 
Victoria  was  sent  to  the  Amsterdam  Ex- 
hibition of  1876,  at  which  time  it  was 
stated  that  a  French  company  had  been 
formed  to  utilize  the  fiber  in  commerce. 
The  uses  of  the  plant  in  India  are  even 

more  varied;  used  for  making  sieves  in  Kashmir;  for  thatching  huts  and  house 
boats  in  the  Punjab;  for  soft  mattings,  ropes,  and  baskets  iu  Kuln  and  Kiimaon; 
for  the  same  purposes  in  .Sind,  and  also  for  building  rude  wicker  boats,  emi)loyed 
for  crossing  the  Indus  during  floods.  Used  for  paper  making  with  success.  "The 
fiber  has  been  examined  in  Europe,  and  is  said  to  be  of  fine  texture,  tolerably  strong, 
and  capable,  with  the  aid  of  machinery,  of  being  converted  into  textile  fabrics." 
{Geortje  fVatt.)     Savorgnan  states  that  the  leaves  of  T.  laUfoUu,  are  employed  in 


Flii.  100.— Cat-tail  tiaj;-.  Tiipha  aii<ivsti/oUa. 


320         USEFUL  FIBEK  PLANTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 

Italy  for  making  mats,  hand  baskets,  and  also  to  cover  chair  seats,  bottles,  and  flasks ; 
and,  liually,  the  leaves  are  employed  for  calking  vessels,  aed  lilliug  the  seams  in  casks 
and  barrels. 

Uaisima. 

In  Orton's  Andes  and  the  Amazon  this  name  is  given  to  a  light- wooded,  slender 
tree  of  the  lower  Amazon,  the  inner  bark  of  which  is  said  to  contain  a  strong,  silky 
liber.  If  the  name  was  written  phonetically  it  may  refer  either  to  Urcna  lobata,  or 
to  Guazuma  idmifolia,  as  it  is  very  similar  to  the  Brazilian  names  of  these  species, 
which  follow. 

Uaixyma  aud  Guaxima  (Braz.).     Urena  lohata. 

Uauassii  palm  (Braz.).     See  Attcdea. 

Uaycinia  (Venez.).     Guazuma  ulmifolia. 

Ubim  (Braz.).     See  Gconoma. 

Udal  (Ind.j.     Sterculia  villosu. 

Uki  (Hawaii).     See  Gahnia  hcecheyU. 

Ukot.     Ii<iphk{  liooJxeri. 

Ulat-kaniball  (Ind.).     Abromn  <(U(jusfa. 

Ulmus  alata.     The  Waiioo. 

Common  names. — Winged  elm,  wahoo,  Avahoo  dm,  witch  elm,  cork  elm,  moun- 
tain elm,  water  elm. 
The  elm  belongs  to  the  family  Uhnacea',  which  for  the  most  part  are  large  trees.  U. 
alata  is  a  species  which  abounds  in  the  hummock  lands  of  middle  G'eorgia.  The  bark 
is  very  tough,  and  when  stripped  from  the  trees  and  steeped  in  water  for  several 
weeks  becomes  quite  pliant,  and  is  said  to  make  excellent  horse  collars,  U.puhescens 
(formerly  r.fnlva)  is  the  slippery  elm,  its  fibrous  and  mucilaginous  bark  being  well 
known.     Fiber  from  "Eed  elm''  bark  lias  been  received  from  Missouri. 

Ulmus  campestris. 

This  is  the  common  Elm  of  Europe,  thought  to  have  been  introduced  into  Britain 
by  the  crusaders.  Savorgnan  states  that  the  bark  of  the  young  branches  is  adapted 
to  making  a  common  kind  of  cordage. 

The  bark  of  r.  walUchii,  a  species  occuring  in  India,  contains  a  strong  fiber  used 
for  cordage  aud  for  making  l^edstrings  and  sandals.  Fiber  is  also  said  to  have  been 
made  from  the  scape  of  the  flower  stalks. 

Umbauba  (Braz.).     Gecropia pcltata. 

Umbogozembe  (Natal).     Urera  tenax. 

um-Vemvani  (Natal).     Sida  rhombifolia. 

Uniola  racemiflora. 

A  West  Indian  grass,  the  stems  of  which  have  been  made  into  ropes.  Also  pro- 
posed for  paper  stock. 

Upas  tree  (Java).     AnUaris  toxicaria. 

Uram  (Malay).    Ahutilon  indicum. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE. 


321 


Urena  lobata.     O^i^sak  Weed. 

Exogen.     Maliacecv.     A  small  shrub. 

Common  AND  NATIVE  names. — Ciesar  weed  (Fla.);  Carf(7Z(>,  (Venez.) ;  Guaxima,  or 

Uaixyma  (Braz.) ;  Bun-ochra  (Ind.) ;  Patta-appele  (Ceyl.) ;  JAv-m  ( Yorubaland). 

This  species  is  almost  cosmopolitan,  as  it  is  found  in  both  temiierate  and  tropical 

countries  in  many  parts  of  the  world.     It  is  a  very  common  species  in  many  portions 


Flo.  101.— Tlic  Oii-><:ir  weed,  Vrena  lobata. 


of  the  United  States,  but  has  been  particularly  remarked  as  a  liber  plant  in  Florida, 
where  uninformed  persons  have  taken  it  for  ramie.  It  occurs  in  South  America, 
India,  Africa,  and  other  tropical  countries.     (See  tig.  101.) 

Bast  J'iher. — Resembles  many  of  the  mallow  fibers,  both  as  to  color  and  strength, 

and  would  make  a  good  jute  substitute,  though  the  stalks  are  short  and  small.     The 

museum  contains  many  specimens  of  this  fiber,  several  from  Brazil  and  Venezuela. 

Dr.  Ernst  describes  the  fiber  as  a  meter  in  length,  very  tine  and  white,  very  strong, 

12247— No.  9 21 


322  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

t;ikiii<f  dyes  readily.  Some  very  fiue  samples  of  the  Braziliau  fiber  were  received 
tlirony,h  the  Phil.  Int.  Exh.,  1876,  Avith  the  statemeut  that  it  is  extracted  readily 
aud  makes  A'ery  strong  cordage;  "takes  color  Avell,  aud  the  dyes  ai'e  lasting."  In 
the  East  Indies  it  has  been  used  for  the  manufacture  of  i>aper.  Spon  states  that 
slips  of  sized  paper  Aveighing  o9  grains  made  from  this  fiber  sustained  75  ]>ounds, 
against  Hank  of  England  note  i>ulp  47  pounds.  Used  in  India  for  the  manufacture  of 
sacking  and  twine,  and  is  consiilered  a  fair  substitute  forllax;  is  easily  extracted. 
It  is  a  common  shrub  in  poitions  of  Africa,  and  in  Yorubaland  is  used  for  rope,  and 
as  a  tic  material  in  house  l)uil<ling.  An  allied  form  found  in  India,  U.  niiiuala,  yields 
a  similar  liber  that  is  employed  for  the  same  uses.  This  is  known  as  the  Hin  appele 
in  t'eylon,  and  h'inijhi  in  Bengal. 

Urera  subpeltata.     OiiTKiAo. 

Exogcu.      rrliracco'.     A  shrub. 

A  genus  allied  to  Vriica  or  the  nettles.  The  species  named  occurs  in  southern 
Brazil,  Avhero  it  is  found  in  briary  copses.  It  is  nu'dicinal,  being  often  cm]>loyed  in 
forms  of  tea  made  from  the  bark  as  a  remedy  for  ])ulnionary  diseases.  It  forms  an 
excellent  food  ibr  horses. 

Bast  Fihku. — It  contains  a  strong  liber,  from  which  the  Indians  make  nets,  their 
short  hip  clothing,  and  other  articles.  It  should  be  one  of  the  best  of  the  vegetable 
productions  for  tlic  manufacture  of  paper.    Also  called  Cdnsauciilo.    {Alberto  IJifflren.) 

Urera  tenax.     Umbogozembe. 

Exogcu.      rrlicaceo:     A  shrub,  8  to  10  feet. 

This  siiccies  abounds  in  Xatal,  aiul  was  brought  to  notice  as  a  fiber  plant  at  the 
Colonial  and  Indian  Exhibition,  London,  1886.  "The  shrub  is  of  moderately  (piick 
growth  and  is  easily  propagated.  Plants  have  been  reared  for  distribution,  but  no 
one  seems  to  care  to  give  it  a  trial.  One  reason  for  this  may  be  ])robably  found  in  the 
more  or  less  complete  failure  of  all  machines  yet  invented  for  profitable  extraction  of 
the  fiber.  Should  such  a  machine  be  perfected,  I  believe  the  plant  under  notice 
would  be  found  easier  to  work  than  the  'Chiuagrass.'"  {J.  Medley  JVood.)  (Seefig.  102.) 

FiBEK. — This  is  described  as  strong  and  of  good  color.  Is  used  by  the  natives  for 
making  sleeping  mats.  The  stripped  bast  resembles  China  grass,  but  is  more  brittle 
and  is  not  so  lustrous.     The  plant  is  figured  in  the  Kew  Bullctiu  for  March,  1894. 

Urera  sandwicensis.     Opuhe. 

Abundant  in  the  Sandwich  Islands.  Ilillebrand  describes  this  species  in  the 
Flora  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  and  states  that  the  ]dant  yields  a  most  valuable 
fiber,  especially  esteemed  by  the  natives,  and  used  in  the  same  manner  as  the  olona, 
Touchardia  laHfoUa,  which  see.      U.  aJceafoUa  is  a  Tahiti  species. 

Urtica  spp. 

This  genus  gives  its  name  to  a  large  family  of  fiber-producing  plants,  the  Vrfi- 
cacen;  the  representatives  of  which  are  found  in  every  country.  The  Uriicas  are 
commonly  known  as  stinging  nettles.  The  species  of  Hoclimeria,  such  as  ramie,  China 
grass,  etc.,  which  are  closely  related,  differ  in  that  they  are  deficient  in  the  stinging 
hairs  which  characterize  many  of  the  Urticas,  and  hence  the  name  stingless  nettle^ 
one  of  the  common  names  of  the  China  grass  plant.  Bcrnardin  names  fourteen 
species  of  Urtird  as  fiber  yielding,  though  many  of  them  have  l)een  referred  to  other 
genera.  Among  the  less  important  species  are  F.  j>i7M7iATrt  and  C  cotniahiua, 
Oriental,  and  V.  urens,  European. 

In  the  Ignited  States  several  species  are  recognized,  one  of  which,  U.dioifa,  has 
been  introduced  from  Europe.  Another  species  has  been  recognized  as  a  valuable 
fiber  plant  and  is  treated  under  the  title  T.  grorUis.  U.  iireiix  and  U.  chamcdryoUles, 
the  former  a  Southern  form,  the  latter  more  widely  distributed,  are  of  small  impor- 
tance as  fiber  jdauts.      Urtica  holosericeu,  of  the  southern  Pacific  States,  yields  a  very 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE. 


323 


strong  fiber,  used  by  Indiaus  to  make  bowstriugs,  twine,  rope,  etc.  (Represented  in 
the  Bot.  Mas.  Harv.  Univ.  by  one  sanii)le  of  very  good  fiber.)  T'.  hreivcri  probably 
yields  the  same  kind  of  fiber.     (Dr.  U.  llarard.) 

The  Treasury  of  Botany  mentions  many  species  of  Urtica  that  have  been  prized 
for  their  liber,  iu  different  countries,  but  in  the  modern  nomenclature  these  have 
been  referred  to  other  genera,  such  as  Jioehnifria,  Giravdit'ia,  Dehregeasia,  Laportea, 
MaoiiiUt,  I'Uea,  I'oiizol:i(t,  Tonchardia,  Villehrunea,  Urera,  and  others,  which  see. 
The  principal  species  still  retained  in  the  genus  are  described  b(dow\ 

ITrtica  dioica.     The  Common  STiNaiNd  Nettle  of  Europe. 

Common  n.\me^. — The  stinging  or  great  nettle.     In  India  it  has  been  given  such 
names  as  lUclui,  Chicru,  etc.,  meaning  the  scorpion  or  stinger. 


Fig.  102.— Plant  of  Vrcra  tenax. 


Common  in  the  United  States  in  waste  places,  Nova  Scotia  to  Ontario  and  Minne- 
sota; southward  to  South  Carolina  and  Missouri.  Introduced  from  Europe  where  it 
is  a  common  species.  Found  also  in  India,  in  the  Himalayas,  at  altitudes  of  8,000  to 
12,000  feet. 

Bast  Fiher. — Has  not  been  reported  as  a  fiber  plant  iu  the  United  States,  but  is  said 
to  have  been  prepared  in  Germany,  the  'Miljer  made  to  becouie  as  fine  as  silk."  Is  also 
used  in  Europe  for  fish  Hues  and,  it  is  claimed,  has  been  manufactured  into  fabrics. 
Savorgnan  states  that  it  is  known  as  Swedish  hemp,  and  that  the  plant  is  cultivated 
in  Sweden,  and  its  fiber  used  for  cordage  and  cloth.  In  India  the  "stems  yield  a 
Avell-known  fiber,  Avhich  is  said  to  rival  in  tenacity  the  best  hemp."     {(ieorge  Watt.) 


324  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

U.  parrijiora  is  an  Indian  8i)ecie8  found  in  the  temperate  Himalayas.  It  yields  a 
fiber,  though  little  is  known  about  it ;  like  the  allied  sjiecies,  is  doubtless  used  in 
cordage,  etc. 

Urtica  gracilis.     The  Slender  Nettle. 

Nova  Scotia  to  British  Columbia;  southward  to  North  Carolina,  Louisiana; 
Kansas.  A  native  species,  abounding  throuj^hout  the  United  States  and  Canada. 
As  it  is  related  to  the  ramie  plant  it  naturally  possesses  a  good  tiber  in  its  bark, 
though  the  stinging  hairs  Avhich  clothe  its  stalks  and  leaves  m",ke  it  unpleasant  to 
handle. 

Bast  FinKH. — Many  specimens  have  been  received  by  the  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture gathered  from  weather-beaten  stalks  found  standing  in  the  fields,  though  the 
special  agent  in  charge  of  fiber  iuvestigations  has  ue\er  seen  a  properly  prepared 
sample  of  tlie  liber  from  fresh  stalks,  and  is  unable  to  describe  its  characteristics.  A 
few  years  ago  it  attracted  attention  in  Minnesota,  and  an  attempt  was  made  to 
reduce  the  fiber,  though  the  experiment  was  interrupted  before  eomiiletiou,  and  no 
report  could  be  made.  From  a  communication  to  the  Department  by  .J.  Carmichael 
Allen,  in  1891,  the  following  extract  is  pro()uced: 

I  have  about  a  half  ton  of  the  straw  of  Urtica  gracilis  retting,  and  will  furnish 
you  with  samples  of  the  fiber  as  soon  as  readj'.  It  seems  a  close  relative  of  the 
Boehmeria  fiber,  though  whether  dew  retting  will  prove  a  successful  system  or  not 
for  this  plant  I  shall  not  be  prepaied  to  say  until  I  scutch  some  of  it.  I  inclose  a 
sample  of  tow  I  made  from  a  few  stems  this  afternoon.  You  will  see  it  is  not  sufii- 
ciently  retted  and  the  fiber  though  soft  does  not  api)ear  to  be  over  strong.  From  the 
nature  and  feel  of  it  I  expect  it  will  be  better  adapted  to  mix  with  wool  than  as  a 
substitute  for  tlax,  and  this  comes  more  under  the  Khea  class. 

In thiscouueotion,  it  luay  be  stated  that  the  tiber  of  Girardiuia  imlmata{l'.  heiero- 
phylla) ,  which  is  found  in  Coromandel,  Nepal,  Buruiah,  Assam,  etc.,  is  known  as  vege- 
table wool,  and  it  is  claiuied  that  the  filaments  of  this  species,  "having  a  rougher 
surface  than  those  of  Boehmeria  nirea  (China  grass),  are,  therefore,  more  easily  com- 
bined -with  wool  in  mixed  fabrics.'"  Another  species  which  may  be  mentioned  la 
U.  caracasana,  a  Tahiti  form,  from  which  a  good  tiber  is  obtained. 

Uruca  (Braz.).     Bixa  orellana. 

Urucuri  palm  (Braz.).     Attalea  excelsa. 

Usir  (Arab.).     Andropogon  squarrosu.s. 

Uttariya  jute  (Ind.).     See  Corvhonis. 

Vacona  (also  Bacona)  (Maurit).     Pandanus  utilis. 

Vanilla  grass.     Hierochloi'  odorata. 

Vasha  and  Vellacoi  (Malay).     Musa  sapientum. 

Vegetable  silk  (see  cottou — silk  cottons;  refer  also  to  artificial  silk). 

Vegetable  wool  (see  Girardinia  palmata;  see  also  Urtica  gracilis). 

Velvet  mallo-w.     Lavatera  maritima. 

Vendi,  or  Venda-kaya  (lud.).     Hibiscus  esculentus. 

Vetivert.     Andropogon  squarrosiis. 

Viburnum  spp. 

An  extensive  genus  of  shruVis,  natives  of  the  temperate  regions  of  North  America, 
Asia,  and  Africa.     The  wood  of  several  species  is  used  for  turnery,  etc.     Another 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE  325 

yields  ;i  fruit  from  which  ink  its  made,  and  still  another  yields  a  dye.  The  ancients 
used  the  word  viburna  to  signify  a  pliant,  branched  plant  that  could  be  iised  in 
tying,  r.  canadnisix  is  noted  in  Manual  Hoepli.  "Has  very  flexible  and  tenacious 
branches,  which  are  utilized,  either  split  or  entire,  as  bands  for  binding  bales  and 
large  packages.''  This  name  is  unknown  to  botanists;  probably  V.  cassiiioiden,  AA'ithe- 
rod,  is  meant. 

Vigna  catjang.     The  Oowpea. 

Syn.     DoUchos  >iinei>Kix. 

Exogen.     Le(jumitio>nv.     Annual  ft)rage  plant. 

CoMMOX  XAAiES. — Southern  cowpea.  field  pea,  stock  pea,  cherry  l>ean,  Chinese 
vetch. 

Of  unknown  origin.  Cultivated  in  the  United  States  and  in  Oriental  and  other 
warm  countries.  Economic  value,  as  a  forage  plant,  as  an  article  of  liuman  food, 
and  as  a  fertilizer  when  the  crop  is  plowed  under. 

There  are  )nany  named  forms  or  cultural  varieties,  all  of  which,  however,  are  con- 
sidered by  botanists  to  be  derived  from  one  species.  It  so  readily  adapts  itself  to 
difterent  soils  and  changes  its  characters  so  readily  under  cultivation,  that  there  has 
been  much  difficulty  in  determining  the  limits  of  the  various  named  forms.  The 
cowpeas  are  of  three  general  classes,  according  to  theirhabit  of  growth,  consisting  of 
"bunch"  varieties,  which  grow  erect  and  compact;  "runners,"' which  start  oft"  erect 
and  then  throw  out  running  branches;  and  "trailers,"  which  grow  Hat  upon  the 
ground  with  long  stems  sometimes  1.5  to  20  feet  in  length.  Tliere  is  also  mirch  varia- 
tion in  size,  shajie,  and  color  markings  of  the  seeds,  and  in  the  manner  in  which 
the  seeds  are  borne  in  the  pod,  the  seeds  of  some  being  closely  crowded  together, 
called  "  crowders,"'  and  others  with  the  seeds  wide  apart  and  the  pods  constricted 
between  each  seed,  called  "kidney  "  peas.  .  The  bunch  varieties  are  the  ones  which  are 
best  adapted  to  growing  for  hay  or  ensilage,  while  the  runners  and  trailers  are  val- 
uable for  soiling  purposes  or  for  turning  under  as  green  manure.  Tlie  length  of 
season  required  for  maturity  also  varies  greatly,  the  bunch  varieties,  as  a  rule, 
requiring  only  a  short  season.     {F.  Lamson-Scrilnier.) 

Bast  fiber. — A  field  sample  of  the  fiber  of  this  plant  has  recently  been  received 
from  Dr.  W.  J.  Mason,  of  Activity,  Ala.  Weather  retted,  by  exposure  to  the  ele- 
ments, its  characters  can  not  be  defined.  In  the  matter  of  strength,  however,  it  is 
interesting  to  note  th.at  a  cord  about  half  the  size  of  binding  twine  showed  a 
breakage  strain  of  38  pounds,  Kentucky  hemp  binding  twine  averaging  about  100 
pounds. 

Dr.  Mason  writes  as  follows:  "As  you  are  aware,  the  pea  is  to  the  South  what 
clover  is  to  other  sections  in  restoring  fertility  to  the  soil ;  then  it  is  one  of  the  finest 
food  and  forage  crops  for  both  man  and  beast.  Now,  if  the  fiber  could  be  manu- 
factured into  twine  and  baling  stuffs,  I  do  not  see  why  it  would  not  open  anew  field 
for  manufactures  and  add  a  new  source  of  profit  to  the  Southern  farmers.  The 
sample  forwarded  has  lain  in  the  open  fields  all  the  winter,  and  you  will  notice  that 
it  is  stainless  and  possessed  of  great  strength."  While  the  fiber  is  strong  and  good 
it  would  be  difiicult  to  extract  it  commercially  at  jiaying  cost,  in  competition  with 
such  a  fiber  as  hemp,  which  is  produced  in  straight,  slender,  rigid  stalks,  which  can 
be  handled  with  ease  in  the  harvesting,  curing,  and  breaking,  to  clean  the  fiber. 
No  doubt  the  fiber  could  be  used  for  some  purpose  if  it  could  be  secured  at  econom- 
ical cost. 

Villebrunea  integrifolia. 

Exogen.      UrticacKV.     A  small  tree. 

Abounds  in  many  parts  of  India  and  Ceylon,  together  with  an  allied  species, 
V.  fniteecenx. 

Bast  Fiber. — "One  of  the stromgest  of  India  fibers"  (Sjion)  The  fiber  in  Sikkim 
and  Assam  has  been  made  into  ropes,  nets,  and  cloth.     The  Ban-rhea  of  the  Assamese. 


326         USEFUL  FIBER  PLANTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 

In  Dr.  George  \¥:itt'3  Khea  and  allied  Rhea  libers  (selectioub  from  the  records  of  the 
Governmeut  of  ludLa,  revenue  and  agricultural  department)  there  is  an  exhaustive 
account  of  the  fiber  of  both  /'.  iniegr'ifoVm  and  V.  frulescens.  See  also  Die.  Ec.  Prod. 
Ind.,  Vol.  VI,  Part  IV. 

Vismia  cayennensis. 

The  rism/rts  are  mostly  tropical  American  plants,  though  several  species  are  found 
in  Africa.  Some  of  the  species,  such  as  T.  cayennensis,  from  Guiana,  yield  a  resin 
known  as  American  gamboge.  This  species  is  found  in  Trinidad,  known  as  Bois  Samj. 
Mr.  J.  H.  Hart  states  that  it  yields  a  coarse  bast  fiber. 

Vitis  adnata. 

Belongs  to  the  lltacea ,  a  slender  climbing  plant  met  with  in  the  hotter  parts  of 
India,  Ceylon,  Java,  Philippine  Islands,  etc.,  and  allied  to  the  common  grape,  V.  vin- 
ifera.     It  is  reported  that  the  Santals  prepare  a  good  cordage  fiber  from  the  stems. 

Voivoi  (Fiji  Is.).     Pandanus  caricoKUfi.     See  under  P.  utilis. 

Volandera  (Cent.  Am.).     Cuvanillesia  plantanifoUa. 

Vonitra  (Madagascar).     See  Dictyosperma  fibrosuni . 

Wadara  (Br.  Giiiaii.).     See  Couruitiri. 

Waduri  (Java).     Calotropis  gigantea. 

Waduri  bast  (Br.  Guian.).     See  Leci/this. 

Waeta  keyiva  (Ceyl.).     PandanKs  odoratisshuHS. 

Wahoo  elm  (see  C7m«.s'  alata). 

Wal(Ceyl.)  =  V\'ild. 

"Wal-kaihil  (Ceyl.).     Mu.sa  napientmn. 

"Walola  (New  Guiii.).     See  Polyponi.s. 

Warang  bast.     Kyd  ia  en  Ijic i  n a . 

Washingtonia  filifera. 

A  California  palm— southern  California  to  western  Arizona — found  in  rocky  locali- 
ties in  dry,  sheltered  canyons.  Fibrous  material  is  said  to  have  been  produced  from 
it  by  the  Indians.  Mentioned  by  Romyn  Hitchcock  in  list  of  fibers  published  by 
tbeU.  S.  Nat.  Mus.,  1884. 

The  revist  d  name  of  this  species  is  Xeotctishintjtonia  Jilamentosa. 

Water  iris,  Yellow  (see  Fris). 

Water  ■weed.     Elodea  caiuulensis. 

Wawla  bast.     Holoptelea  integrifoUa. 

Wax  palm  (Braz.).   Copernicia  cerifera. 

Wayaka  (Fiji  Is.).     See  PachyrJiiziis  angulatus. 

Wedding  flovrer,  Lord  Ho"we's  (Austr.).     Mormi  rohimoniana. 

Wei  (<'eyl.)=Cliuiber.     A  corainon  affix  in  Ceylon  names. 

Weni-wel  (Ceyl.).     Coscinium  feneatruiHin. 

West  Indian  locust.     Hymencea  courharil. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  327 

Wharariki  (Xew  Zca.).     riionitiHiii  tcuH.v. 

Wheat  straw  (see  Triticioit). 

White  cotton  tree,  of  India.      Eriodendrou  anfractnosum. 

White  nielilot.     McIiJofKs  aJha. 

White  mulberry.     Morns  nlba. 

White  silk  cotton  tree.      Corhlo.spenitKm  (jossypium. 

White  s'weet  clover.     Mrlilotiis  ulha. 

Wicopy  {V .  S.).      ]>'n-ca pidnstriH. 

Wikstroemia  canescens.     (tAnpi.  of  Japan. 

Exogen.      Tlnjmelwaceir. 

This  gouiis  is  distributed  over  the  ^viu•lller  parts  of  Asia,  Australia,  and  the  Pacilic 
islands,  some  of  them  heiug  shrubs  and  others  trees.  The  genus  is  related  to  Daphne. 
TV.  cduesans  is  employed  to  a  commercial  extent  in  .Japan  for  paper  making. 

Bast  Fiber. — Beautiful  e»iniples  of  the  raw  and  prepared  baric,  and  a  large  s(  ries 
of  samples  of  paper  made  from  it,  were  received  from  the  .Japanese  exhibit,  W.  C. 
E.,  1893. 

This  plant  is  very  rarely  cultivated,  the  bark  being  gathered  chielly  from  "wild 
growth.  Soil  tit  for  the  plants  is  clay,  of  red  or  yellow  color,  in  an  exposed  situa- 
tion, such  as  mountain  or  hillside  facing  south.  Seed  is  sown  at  the  end  of  March 
or  beginning  of  April  and  covered  slightly  with  earth.  After  germination  weeding 
should  be  performed,  manuring  with  some  liquid  manure  and  drawing  the  earth 
around  the  iilant.  lu  the  dry  summer  of  the  tirst  j'ear  litter  from  horse  or  cow 
stables  is  spread  around  the  plants  and  watering  is  repeated  as  required.  In  the 
succeeding  years  hoeing  au<l  weeding  are  done  during  the  summer,  weeds  being  col- 
lected around  the  plant  and  allowed  to  decay  there.  Harvesting  time  varies,  accord- 
ing to  circumstances,  from  the  third  to  the  seventh  year  from  the  time  of  sowing. 
It  is  harvested  by  pulling  instead  of  cutting,  and  new  shoots  come  up  from  the  old 
roots  left  in  the  ground;  moreover,  seed  dropped  germinates  naturally,  and  plants 
do  not  need  to  be  transplanted  again.  The  product  from  1  acre  of  land  is  estimated 
at  about  500  or  at  most  700  kilograms  of  the  raw  liark.  The  bark  is  at  once  stripped 
on  the  farm,  for  if  the  stems  become  dry  the  tibers  are  difficult  to  get  out,  and 
scraping  the  coarse  outer  bark  should  be  done  while  the  stems  contain  some  moisture. 
In  performing  the  latter  operation,  the  raw  bark  is  steeped  in  water  and  sciaped 
carefully  with  a  knife,  and  then  washed  thoroughly  with  water  to  free  it  from 
adhering  matters,  and  dried  perfectlj'  by  h.iuging  on  bamboo  poles,  (('at.  Agl.  Prod- 
ucts of  Japan,  W.  C.  E..  1893.) 

Wikstroemia  viridiflora. 

Native  Names. — The  AJda  of  Hawaii ;  Orao  of  the  'fahitians ;  ^fa^i  of  the  Vitians ; 
the  Sinn  inakiivi  of  the  Fiji  Islanders. 

A  treelike  shrub,  2  to  1  feet,  found  in  the  valleys  of  all  the  Hawaiian  group,  and 
also  in  the  Fiji,  Society,  and  Vlti  islands,  eastern  Australia. 

Bast  Fiber. — Derived  frcm  the  bark.  The  bark  is  extremely  tough,  but  is  easily 
separated.  The  iilicr  obtained  is  used  ibr  making  rough  native  cordage,  nets,  lish 
lines,  etc.  Hillebrand  does  not  mention  the  si)ecies  economically,  but  the  I^.  S.  Nat. 
Mus.  contains  specimens  of  rope  and  twine  prepared  by  the  Hawaiians  from  its 
bark  under  the  name  TV.  J'oetida.     (Kept.  Nat.  Mus.,  1890.) 

Wild  cotton  of  Natal.     Ipomcea  gerrardi  (according  to  Bernardin). 
Wild  hemp.     Maontin  puya. 


328  USEFUL    FIBER   PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

Wild  Ipecacuanha.     Asclepias  curassavica. 

Wild  mahoe.     Malraviscus  arhoreus. 

Wild  okra.     Malachra  cnpitata. 

Wild  pineapple  (W.  Ind.).     BromvVta  pinffuln. 

Wild  rice.     Zizania  aquaiica. 

Willo-w,  Species  of  (see  Halix). 

Willo^v  herb.      EpilohUim  august  if olium. 

Wina  (Br.  Guiaii.).     Probably  Lecythis  (Ernst),  which  see. 

Wine  palm  of  Para  (Bra/..).     Manritia  rmifern. 

Wissadula  rostrata  (see  Ahutilon  peripJocifolinm.) 

Wistaria  chinensis. 

A  irenns  of  Icj^iuiiinons  ])lauts  found  in  Japan,  China,  and  North  Anxcrica.  W. 
frutescen-i  is  a  well-known  cliniher  with  conspicuous  tirtwevs.  Cultivated  on  trellises 
and  walls  in  this  country.  JV.  chinennix  is  stated,  on  the  authority  of  Savorgnan,  to 
yield  a  liber,  in  Italy,  which  is  very  white  and  line,  and  which  may  servo  for  light 
textures. 

The  revised  name  of  this  genua  is  Krantihiit. 

Wood  reed  grass.     Kpivampes  rujens. 
Woodwardia  radicans.     The  Chain  Fern. 

A  genus  of  I'ilicts  rei)resented  in  uianj-  ])ortions  of  the  globe,  the  above  sjiecies 
occurring  on  the  Pacific  Coast. 

Stkuctikal  Fibek. — This  fern  has  two  long  stalks,  each  containing  two  fibro- 
A-ascular  bundles,  in  the  shape  of  large,  Hattened  brown  threads,  tough  and  flexible. 
While  still  fresh  the  stalks  are  bruised  and  pounded  so  as  to  liberate  the  threads, 
which  are  then  cleaned  and  stained  in  an  infusion  of  alder  bark.  These  threads 
become  brittle  in  drying  and  must  be  used  moist.     (Dr.  V.  Huvard.) 

An  allied  species.  Sndleria  ciiaiheoides. which  is  common  on  all  the  Hawaiian  Islands, 
is  another  fiber  fern.  "'The  soft,  cuily,  hair-like  scales  are  gathered  for  the  same 
l^nrpose  as  the  hairs  of  Cihoiiiim.  and  are  lalbd  puhi  amaviaii.  In  former  times  the 
stipites,  macerated  in  water,  were  beaten  together  with  the  bast  of  'mamake'  or 
'waukt/  to  serve  as  a  sizing,  jjerhaps  also  to  impart  a  reddish  dye,  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  ' kapa  '  or  native  cloth.''     ( UUhhrand.  i     See  also  Adiaiifmii. 

Woody  fiber  (see  Classification  in  the  Introduction,  page  25). 
Wrack  grass  (T".  S.  and  Europe).     Zontcra  Jiiarina. 
Wuckoo  (Ind.).     Crotidaria  juncea. 
Wiigsi  (Hopi.).     Mnhlenherfjia  pungens. 
Xanthorrhoea  australis.     Resin  (iRASS  Tree. 

Endogen.     Liliaceo'.     Palm-like  tree. 

The  species  of  Xanfhorrhaa  are  known  to  the  natives  of  Australia  as  black  boy  or 
grass  gum  trees.  Most  of  the  species  have  thick  trunks,  though  iu  some  the  trunk 
is  quite  short.     Two  species  yield  forms  of  resin. 

Structural  Fiber. — A',  australis  is  mentioned  by  Dr.  Giiilfoyle  as  a  fiber  plant. 
"A  small  percentage  of  silky  fiber  can  be  extracted,  which  jirobably  is  of  little 
value,  although  the  trunk  yields  a  fragrant  resin,  which  has  been  used  as  a  varnish, 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE  329 

for  dyeing  purposes,  and  iu  tlie  luauufactnre  of  lacquer  for  tinware.  It  also  affords 
a  largo  percentage  of  wood  spirit."  .Y.  longifolia  is  the  dwarf  grass  tree  of  Victoria, 
native  tussock  grass  or  mat  rush  of  l>r.  Guilfoyle's  list. 

Xerophylluni  tenax. 

Kndogen.     LiVniveif. 

Coast  Range,  Monterey  to  British  Columbia  ;  also  Sierra  Nevadas.  Tliis  liliaceous 
plant  has  very  stiff,  slender  leaves,  that  are  admirably  adapted  for  jilaiting. 

STi!rcTUR.A.L  Fiber. — '-Theplant  is  useful  to  the  natives.  Out  of  its  very  tenacious 
leaves  they  weave  the  water-tight  haskets  which  they  use  for  cooking  their  victuals 
in."'  {F.  Piirah.)  '-Its  slender  leaves,  2  to  3  feet  long,  are  strong,  tough,  and  flexible; 
they  do  not  contain  scparalde  textile  fibers,  but  are  largely  used  by  Indians  for  the 
finer  grades  of  their  basketwork."  (Dr.  V.  Earard).  An  allied  species  is  found  on 
the  Atlantic  Coast,  but  it  is  not  known  to  have  been  used  economically. 

Xerotes  longifolia. 

Endogen.     .Jiincdcar.     A  perennial  rush. 
Common  names. — Tussock  grass;  Australian  mat  rush. 
Coast  of  Australia;  especially  common  in  Victoria  in  dry,  open  sand  localities, 
where  it  covers  miles  of  country. 

Structural  Fiber. — "It  is  reckoned  as  the  best  indigenous  substitute  for  Esparto 
for  paper  making"  (Spon).  The  culms  are  used  by  the  Yarra  tribe  of  southeastern 
Australia  for  manufacturing  baskets.  The  Kew  Museum  Guide  notes  a  dilly  bag 
made  from  the  culms  of  the  lioomhi  ( Y.  multifioro)  in  Now  South  Wales. 

Xtuc  (Mex.).     Fiber  of  Yucca. 

Xylopia  sericea.     The  Pindayua  or  Malaguete. 

Exogen.     Anonacea-.     A  tree. 

The  species  included  iu  this  genus  are  South  American  trees  or  shrubs,  several  of 
which  are  found  in  Brazil  and  a  few  in  the  West  Indies.  They  are  noted  for  the 
bitterness  of  the  wood  and  for  the  aromatic  properties  of  their  fruit  and  seed. 

1?.\ST  Fiber. — The  fiber  of  the  species  named,  if  so  it  may  be  called,  is  of  the 
coarsest  description  and  consists  only  of  the  cortical  layers  of  bark,  which  are  torn 
from  the  trees  in  ribbon-like  strips.  These  have  no  use  that  can  bo  dignified  by  the 
name  of  manufacture,  and  are  only  rudely  twisted  or  plaited  by  the  natives  into  a 
kind  of  coarse  cordage,  which  is  used  to  tie  fences  and  sometimes  to  secure  cattle. 
A  sample  of  this  coarsely  twisted  rope  was  received  from  Brazil  (Phil.  Int.  Exh., 
1876).  and  is  a  little  more  than  half  an  inch  iu  diameter,  composed  of  three  strands, 
each  of  which  contains  about  nine  or  ten  of  these  ribbons  or  strips  of  bast,  the 
interior  ones  being  quite  harsh  and  woody.  Doubtless,  in  skilled  hands,  finer  speci- 
mens of  cordage  might  be  produced,  though,  .strictly  speaking,  it  does  not  possess 
fibrous  material.     It  would  be  available  for  mats. 

*  Specimens. — Mus.  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag.,  and  Bot.  Mus.  Harv.  I'niv. ;  labeled  Emhirama. 

Xylopia  friitescens  is  another  Brazilian  .species,  which  furnishes  a  fiber  that  lias  been 
used  for  similar  rough  cordage.  It  is  a  native  of  Cayenne.  A',  (jrandiflora,  also  found 
in  Brazil,  is  known  in  Sao  Paulo  as  Emhira  hranca.  "The  wood  of  this  tree  is  highly 
esteemed,  and  from  its  bark  is  drawn  a  fiber  which  is  strong  and  from  which  nets  are 
made."     It  is  also  called  the  Piridahi/ha  or  thorn  tree. 

Xylostroma  giganteum. 

This  is  the  sterile  mi/ceUum  of  some  nijmenomycele.  It  is  found  in  trunks  of  trees  or 
logs,  where  it  may  form  large  masses,  and  sometimes  between  boards  in  lumber  piles, 
where  it  forms  sheets  perhaps  a  foot  in  breadth  and  several  feet  long.  It  is  very  simi- 
lar to  white  or  soiled  kid  leather,  and  makes  excellent  razor-strop  material,  probably 
reijuiriug  no  preparation  beyond  care  in  the  selection  of  suitably  soft  pieces.  {B.  T. 
Galloumy.) 


330         USEFUL  FIBER  PLANTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 

Yachan  (Arg,).     Chorisia  sxyeciona. 

Yagua-yagua  or  Huitoc  (Peru).     Genipa  amerieana.     (Dorca's  list.) 

<  )rtou  yives  Yagna  as  the  common  uamc  of  a  species  of  Attalea. 
Yaka  fiber  (Fiji  Is.).     Pachyrhizus  anyulatiiH. 
Yashqui  and  Yaxci  (Mex.).     See  A(jarr  rifiida. 
Yatay-pony  (Arg.)     8ee  I>ii)loth('miHm. 
Yaxche  (Mex.).     Bomhax  ceiha. 
Yercum  (Ind.).     (UOoiropis  (jUjioitea. 
Yolba  (Aiidani.  Is.).     See  Anadendrum. 
Youn-padi-si  (Burin.).     Hibiscus  csculentus. 

Ysote  (Mex.).     Yucca. 

Tliis  name  lias  lieeu  iriveii  liotli  to  Yucca  (tloifolid  aiul  Y.  Jilameniosa. 

Yucca  spp. 

Endogens.  LlViacea'.  Sbrults  witli  clnstereil  ensiform  leaves. 
The  species  of  this  genus  are  chieHy  natives  of  the  southern  United  States  and 
Mexico,  though  many  of  them  have  been  distributed  to  Europe,  Africa,  India,  and 
Australia,  and  several  are  found  in  the  West  Indies,  Central  and  South  America. 
Some  are  familiar  ornamental  i)lants,  and  are  quite  hardy.  One  species,  3.  //7r/»(e)i- 
tosa,  finds  its  Avay  into  our  gardens  even  in  more  northern  sections  of  the  country, 
and  is  conspicuous  in  the  blooming  season  for  its  large,  white,  lily-like  flowers,  as 
well  as  for  its  long,  sword-shaped  leaves,  cacli  terminating  in  a  sharp  ]ioint.  The 
species  of  Yucca  flourish  on  the  poorest  soils.  Probably  no  other  leaf  iiber  has  so 
often  been  the  subject  of  correspondence  Avith  the  Department,  and  but  for  the 
short  length  of  the  fiber  it  would  doubtless  have  come  into  commercial  use  long  ago. 
The  important  species  of  Yucca  growing  in  the  United  States  are  Yucca  aloifoUa, 
Y.  boccaUi,  Y.filamentosa,  Y.  (jJauca,  and  )'.  gloriosa.  These  are  variously  known  as 
dagger  plants,  Adam's  needle,  bear  grass,  Spanish  bayonet,  dwarf  palmetto,  etc.,  the 
Mexican  general  name  for  the  group  being  Pahitea. 

There  are  no  records  to  show  that  these  structural  libers  have  ever  been  emjiloyed 
otherwise  than  experimentally  in  this  country,  if  we  except  the  limited  use  made  of 
the  liber  by  Indians  and  Mexicans  of  Arizona  or  Sonora,  in  manufactures,  at  the  pres- 
ent day  ;  and  there  are  no  records,  save  the  relics  from  the  mounds  of  burial  plaeesof 
the  ancient  inhabitants  of  North  America,  to  show  bow  long  the  fiber  of  Yucca  has 
been  used  in  the  rude  domestic  economy  of  these  peojile.  Sandals,  mats,  etc.,  from 
the  burial  mounds  show  flber  or  leaves  which  undoubtedly  have  been  derived  from 
Yucca,  and  possibly  J',  glauca,  Y.  elata,  or  allied  narrow-leaved  forms.  We  know 
that  Yucca  (jlauca  is  largely  used  by  the  Arizona  Indians  in  basketry,  etc.,  and  1'. 
baccata  and  similar  species  have  been  eaiployed  by  dirtereut  tribes  for  ropes  and 
cordage.  The  uses  of  these  fibers  by  our  farmers,  and  the  records  of  their  experi- 
mental apjdication  to  the  useful  arts,  are  noted  under  the  names  of  botanical  species, 
which  follow  in  alphabetical  order. 

A  few  of  the  less  important  species,  which  should  be  mentioned,  are :  YuccaarhoreKCctis 
(see  Plate  XI),  the  tree-like  California  desert  form,  regarding  which  Spou  states 
that  "existing  supplies  of  the  plant  are  being  rapidly  consumed  for  paper  making," 
though  no  American  citation  can  be  given  showing  that  this  unwieldly  source  of 
fiber  is  utilized  commercially,  excepting  the  statement  by  William  Trealease  that, 
some  years  since,  the  proprietors  of  an  English  newspaper  established  a  mill  in  the 
home  of  one  of  the  three  Yuccax,  intending  to  make  paper  pulp  from  its  wood,  but 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  331 

the  enterprise  was  shortly  abatidoned.  Kew  has  examples  of  its  fiber  taken  from  the 
trunk.  1'.  trecuUana  shoiiUl  also  bo  mentioned,  the  species  having  been  sent  to 
the  Department  from  Texas  and  New  Mexico,  the  large  leaves  of  which  would  work 
readily  on  the  sisal  hemp  m.ichines.  Dr.  Havard  states  thnt  it  yields  a  good  liber, 
somewhat  similar  to  that  from  1'.  haccata.  Among  other  species  of  Yucca,  William 
Treleaso  names  Y.  guatemalensis,  Y.  australis,  and  Y.  nipicohi,  a  Texan  species,  besides 
several  varieties  of  common  species  which  need  not  be  referred  to  in  this  catalogue. 

The  economic  literature  of  the  Yuccas  of  Mexico  is  badly  confused,  as  far  as  the 
botanical  nomenclature  is  concerned.  It  is  learned,  however,  that  several  species, 
such  as  I',  aloifolia,  Y.  Jilamentosa,  Y.  gloriosa,  Y.  glanca,  and  1'.  treciileaiia,  are 
regarded  as  fiber  plants  in  the  interior,  and  iu  some  instances  the  attempt  has  been 
made  to  produce  fiber  from  them  commercially.  In  preparing  the  fiber  the  leaves 
are  thrown  into  barrels  of  hot  water,  brought  to  the  boiling  point,  after  which  they 
are  crushed  between  two  cylinders  to  remove  extraneous  uuitters.  The  crushed  mass 
is  then  placed  upon  hurdles,  in  such  manner  that  the  fibers  may  be  kept  straight  and 
separate.  The  hurdles  are  then  let  down  into  an  alkaline  bath  heated  to  the  boiling 
point.  This  is  composed  of  ashes  and  water,  45  pounds  of  the  I'ormer  to  121  gallons 
of  the  latter.  The  leaves  remain  in  this  solution  four  hours,  though  good  judgment 
is  necessaiy  that  the  leaves  may  be  neither  over  nor  underheated.  After  taking  out 
of  the  bath  the  fibers  are  washed,  dried,  and  combed,  the  result  being  a  delicate, 
strong,  lustrous,  and  white  fiber,  which  is  known  as  Xtiic.  (Condensed  from  La 
Revista  Agricola,  A'ol.  V,  p. 194.) 

Yucca  fiber  possesses  a  moderate  tenacity,  but  is  somewhat  brittle,  and  can  not  be 
made  to  lose  its  harshness.  Tho  filaments  of  Yucca  are  described  as  white  in  color, 
brilliant,  and  stiff,  composed  of  irregular  bundles,  the  most  of  which  are  large.  By 
rubbing  briskly  between  the  fingers  the  bundles  break  up  into  finer  fibers,  but 
always  preserving  a  great  deal  of  stiffness.  The  walls  are  usually  thick  and  the 
central  cavity  very  apparent.  The  ends  grow  slender  regularly,  and  are  rounded  at 
the  extremit}'. 

Yucca  aloifolia. 

CoM-MOX  NAMES. — Aloe-leaved  Adam's  needle  (Victoria) ;  Spanish  needle  (Trin.) ; 
dagger  plant  (W.  Ind.) ;  Spanish  bayonet  (Fla.).     Ysote  (Mex.). 

This  species  abounds  in  southern  Florida,  in  thickets  of  wild  vegetation  near  the 
coast.  Found  in  many  portions  of  tropical  America,  southern  Europe  (as  an  orna- 
mental plant),  North  and  South  America,  Australia,  etc. 

Stuuctural  Fiber. — From  tho  Australian  collections  (Phil.  Int.  Exh.,  1876)  the 
Department  secured  examples  of  Y.  alolfolio,  tho  aloe-leaved  Adam's  needle,  pre- 
pared by  Dr.  Guilfoyle,  who  stated  that,  though  a  native  of  South  America,  it  suc- 
ceeds admirably  iu  Victoria,  and  is  of  moderately  ([uick  growth. 

A.  aloifolia  abounds  in  Florida  wherever  the  false  sisal  is  found.  Sometimes  the 
tracts  of  this  species  extend  for  miles  along  the  coast  in  broken  patches  or  clumps, 
the  masses  of  bud  leaves  often  rearing  aloft  their  spiked  crowns  a  dozen  feet  from 
the  ground.  The  leaves  of  this  species  are  loo  difficult  to  secure,  and  too  short  when 
secured,  to  ever  prove  valuable  for  fiber  production.  It  produces  a  fair  (|uality  of 
fiber,  however.  About  40  pounds  of  leaves  cut  on  Sands  Key  and  passed  through 
the  machine  gave  a  product  of  about  1  pound  of  dry  fiber,  not  over  12  to  15  inches 
long,  or  the  equivalent  of  56  pounds  to  the  ton  of  leaves.  This  would  not  pay  com- 
mercially, as  the  yield  is  low  for  an  inferior  fiber.  Pineapple  fiber  with  the  same 
yield  would  be  three  or  four  times  as  valuable,  while  the  leaves  could  be  gathered 
for  one-fourth  the  cost. 

'Specimens. — Mus.  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag. ;  Field  Col.  Mus. 

Yucca  baccata. 

High  table-lands  between  the  Rio  Grande  and  the  Gila,  New  Mexico,  also  Cali- 
fornia, Nevada,  Utah;  western  Texas  to  southern  Colorado.  (See  tig.  2,  PI.  Xll.  an 
allied  species.) 


332         USEFUL  FIBER  PLANTS  OF  THE  WORLD.' 

Employed  by  the  Hopi  Indians  of  Arizona  for  l>asketry,  the  name  of  the  plant 
being  Samoa,  the  edible  fruit,  sahii,  and  the  soapy  root  Samomohi.     (Fewkes.) 

Structuhal  Fiber. — Both  the  leaves  .iiid  the  root  of  this  species  yield  fiber 
that  has  been  employed  by  the  Indians.  The  Museum  collection  contains  several 
examples  of  tlie  fibrous  root  and  prepared  fiber  from  it ;  also  cordage,  the  most 
interesting  example  being  a  coil  of  half-inch  rope  from  New  Mexico.  The  liber  is 
coarse  and  wiry,  but  shows  great  strength.  "The  leaves  yield  an  excellent  fiber, 
long,  white,  glo.ssy,  strong  and  very  durable,  but  stiff.  Were  it  possible  to  prepare 
it  economically,  almost  an  inexhaustible  sup))ly  could  be  obtained  from  this  and  the 
allied  T.  macrocarpa  in  the  arid  regions  of  the  southwest.  Specially  useful  for 
brushes,  mats,  bagging,  hammocks,  saddle  blankets,  paper,  etc.  The  parenchyma 
or  pith  obtained  in  the  process  of  separating  fibers  is  highly  valued  for  washing 
purposes,  probably  containing  saponin  (as  in  root)  and  having  marked  detergent 
qualities,"     {Dr.  T.  Httvard.) 

The  fiber  of  the  leaves  being  strong,  long,  and  durable,  are  adapted  for  Indian 
manufactures,  and  the  savages  of  southern  California  make  therefrom  excellent 
horse  blankets.  All  the  tribes  living  in  the  country  where  this  plant  is  found  use 
it  to  make  ropes,  twine,  nets,  hair  brushes,  shoes,  and  mattresses.  The  Diegeno 
Indians  of  southern  California  have  brought  the  n.ses  of  this  plant  to  notice  by  the 
various  articles  they  make  from  its  fibers  and  sell  to  white  settlers.  In  preparing  a 
warp  for  the  manufacture  of  saddle  blankets  it  is  first  loosely  twisted  then,  wlieu 
wanted,  it  receives  a  firmer  twist.  If  the  blanket  is  to  be  ornamented  a  part  of  the 
warp  during  the  first  process  is  dyed  a  claret  brown,  oak  bark  being  u.sed  for  that 
purpose.  The  loom  in  use  am<mg  the  Indians  of  to-day  is  original  with  themselves, 
and  not  borrowed,  as  some  suppose,  from  the  Spaniards.  It  is  a  sim])le  affair,  con- 
sisting of  two  round,  strong,  short  poles,  one  suspended  and  the  other  fastened  to 
the  ground.  Upon  these  is  arranged  the  warj).  Two  long  wooden  needles  with  eyes 
are  threaded  with  the  filling,  which  is  more  loosely  twisted  than  the  warp,  in  order  to 
give  substance  or  body  to  the  blanket.  Each  time  that  the  filling  is  thrust  between 
the  threads  of  the  warp  by  one  hand  the  Indian  female,  with  a  long,  wide,  wooden 
implement  in  the  other  hand,  beats  it  into  place.  This  tool  resembles  a  carving 
knife,  but  is  much  larger  and  longer.  One  edge  is  thin,  and  in  this  is  made  a  number 
of  teeth  or  notches  not  so  sharp  as  to  cut.  This  plant,  so  fibrous  and  so  abundant  on 
land  utterly  worthless  for  the  growth  of  anything  more  valuable,  can  be  had  for  the 
gathering;  and  as  paper  materials  are  scarce,  either  alone  or  mixed  with  straw, 
would  be  valuable  in  the  manufacture  of  that  article.     {Dr.  E.  Palmer.) 

Yucca  filamentosa.     Bear  Grass. 

CoM.Mox  NAMKS. — Adam's  needle;  Eve's  thread;  silk  grass  (erroneously);  bear 
grass;  thi-eady  Adam's  needle  of  Australia. 

This  is  the  common  sjiecies  of  Yucca  of  the  Southern  States.  Hardy  as  far  north 
as  New  England,  It  has  also  been  di,stributed  to  other  portions  of  the  world.  Fig. 
1,  PI.  XII,  is  the  bear  grass  of  the  Southern  States,  photographed  from  a  plant  in  the 
grounds  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 

Structural  Fiber. — The  name  bear  gras.s  should  belong  distinctively  to  the  fiber 
of  this  species.  Bear  grass  is  used  all  over  the  Soxith  in  a  rude  way  as  a  "  tie  plant," 
the  twisted  leaves  being  enijiloyed  for  hanging  hams  and  in  other  similar  uses. 

Bear  grass  grows  on  our  poorest  sand  hills,  and  is  considered  quite  a  pest  when  the 
land  on  which  it  is  found  is  cultivated  for  any  of  our  crops.  It  is  hard  to  destroy; 
is  propagated  either  by  seed  or  by  the  roots.  The  roots  when  cut  will  sprout  and 
put  up  new  plants,  so  an  attempt  to  destroy  it  often  increases  the  growth  and  causes 
it  to  spread.  It  is  evidently  benefited  by  the  eflort  to  destroy  it  in  cultivating  other 
crops.  It  is  used  by  farmers  for  strings  to  hang  up  bacon,  and  sometimes  for  other 
purposes.  It  is  prepared  for  this  use  by  scalding  in  hot  water.  It  is  very  strong 
and  durable  and  has  been  u.sed  to  make  cords,  and  would  be  used  more  if  some  proc- 
ess could  be  invented  to  convert  it  into  rope  without  the  aid  of  machinery,  and  cheap 
enough  to  be  in  reach  of  the  ordinary  farmer.     (E.  X.  Eoheaon.) 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  3o3 

Economic  considkkatioxs. — Twenty  years  ago  this  liber  had  attracted  Ncrioiis 
atteution  iu  the  South,  and  at  that  time  tine  specimens  and  a  rough  fabric  resem- 
bling matting  were  sent  to  the  Department  from  Mr.  Stouer,  of  Stonypoiut,  La., 
who  patented  a  machine  for  the  extraction  of  Yucca  liber.  After  passing  tlirough 
the  machine  tlie  "mashed"  leaves  -were  aiibjected  to  "a  thorough  system  of  wash- 
ing," which  left  the  liber  "as  white  as  Irish  linen."  Notwithstanding  the  efforts  of 
Mr.  Stouer,  the  industry  did  not  succeed. 

Further  experiments  were  made  by  Walter  T.  Forbes  in  1>>90,  and  it  was  claimed 
that  85  per  cent  of  pure  liber  could  be  secured  at  very  low  cost.  In  1893  a  quantity 
of  the  leaves  of  this  plant  were  secured  by  the  Department  iu  Georgia  and  sent  to 
J.  C.  Todd,  Paterson,  N.  J.,  to  be  cleaned  on  the  Todd  sisal  hemp  machine.  The 
cleaning  was  successfully  accomplished,  and  a  supply  of  the  liber  was  thus  obtained 
sufficient  for  examination  and  for  testing.  This  fiber  was  very  dark,  yellowish  in 
color,  harsh,  and  somewhat  brittle.  The  result  of  a  number  of  tests  with  this  fiber, 
twisted  by  hand  to  the  size  of  binding  twine,  showed  a  breakage  strain  varying  from 
45  to  55  i^ounds,  which  is  about  half  the  strength  of  Kentucky  hemp.  This  should 
not  be  rej,arded,  however,  as  an  authoritative  test,  as  such  a  trial  should  be  nuide 
with  machine-manufactured  twine  to  be  comparative.  However,  the  liber  will  doubt- 
less bo  found  inferior  in  slrength  to  any  of  the  commercial  cordage  fibers  now  in 
use,  and  ([uite  iul'erior  to  manila  and  common  hemp. 

If  the  plant  could  be  grown  over  an  area  sufficiently  large  to  supply  the  amount 
of  fiber  needed  to  cover  or  wrap  our  cotton,  it  might  be  used  to  make  a  l)etter  wrap- 
ping than  jute.  Bear  grass  might  be  given  a  trial  for  this  purpose.  While  it  has 
been  accepted  that  fiber  under  2^  feet  in  length  can  not  be  advantageously  used  by 
manufacturers,  Mr.  Todd  states  that  a  shorter  cordage  liber  can  be  worked,  though 
possibly  not  on  all  forms  of  machinery.  The  ([uestiou  of  the  cost  of  gathering  the 
leaves  and  of  extracting  the  fiber  may  need  to  be  investigated  before  an  attempt  is 
made  to  establish  a  bear  grass  fiber  industry.  Regarding  the  extent  of  supply  of 
leaves,  it  would  seem  to  bo  almost  inexhaustible,  as  large  wild  tracts  of  the  plants 
are  found  in  many  of  the  Southern  and  Western  States,  and  special  cultivation  would 
not  be  necessary,  as  the  leaves  are  reproduced  rapidly  after  cutting.  The  Georgia 
leaves  cleaned  by  Mr.  Todd  iu  December,  1892,  were  received  from  John  T.  Haunsou, 
Longview,  Ga.,  who  states  that  they  had  grown  since  July  of  that  year. 

In  Bernardin's  list  I  find  Yucca  fdamentosa  is  also  called  hencquen  (Agare  rigida, 
etc.),  from  which  it  may  be  iuferred  that  the  Yucca  has  been  regarded  to  a  certain 
extent  a  commercial  fiber,  probably  exported  with  the  sisal  liber  under  the  one  name, 
hene(j[uen,  just  as  Cunnah'is  sativu  is  sometimes  exported  from  Intlia  with  Crotalaria 
juiicea,  under  the  name  sunn.  "It  seems  certain  that  iu  the  cargoes  of  Pita  which 
arrive  at  the  markets  of  Europe  there  is  found  a  proportion,  more  or  less  considerable, 
of  Yucca  fiber.  It  is  difificultto  distinguish  the  one  from  the  other,  and  it  is  adaptable 
to  the  same  uses."  (Fe'tiJlart.)  The  species  referred  to  is  not  known,  but  it  is  not  Y. 
filamcntoaa,  for  the  color  of  this  fiber  and  of  "Pita,"  doubtless  Agave  americana,  are 
so  unlike  that  the  fraud  would  have  been  detected  at  a  glance. 

""  Specinien-s. — Mus.  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag. ;  Field  Col.  Mus. ;  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus. 

Yucca  gloriosa. 

Common' XAMKS. — Adam's  needle  (U.  S.) ;  mound  lily  (Austr.) ;  Pc/re  hemp  (Sp.) 
(the  latter  name  valueless). 
The  species  is  common  in  the  Carolinas,  Georgia,  Florida,  and  the  southeastern 
coast  to  Texas;  not  noted  by  the  author  in  southern  Florida.     Introduced  in  other 
countries,  as  Africa  and  India.     Fiber  similar  to  that  from  Y.  Jilanicniosa. 

Yucca  glauca. 

Syn.      1'.  (UigustifoUa. 

HoPi  Indian  namk,  iJohii.     Its  soapy  root  mohu-mobi.     {Feickes.) 
Southwestern    United   States,    Arizona,  and    Mexico,  extending    northward    to 
Montana. 


334  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

Stkuctuhal  Fiber. — Dr.  Palmer  says  of  this  species,  "  The  leaves  yield  the  softest 
fiber  of  all  the  Yuccas.'  A  very  good  fiber  is  extracted  from  this  species  -which  is 
capable  of  employment  in  general  cordage.  The  specimens  in  the  Museum  came 
from  San  Diego,  Cal.  The  Kew  Mus.  shows  a  series  of  the  fibers  of  both  T.  glauca 
and  Y.  f/loriona.  "All  the  Yucca  plants  aroused  for  basketry  and  other  purposes." 
(Fewkes.)  This  species  is  largely  used  by  the  Indians  of  the  regions  where  it  groAvs, 
and  particularly  by  the  Moquis,  Zuuis,  etc.,  for  l)asketrv  of  all  kinds,  horse  bridles 
and  halters,  and  rude  cordage.  In  basket  manufacture  the  leaves  are  either  used 
entire  or  are  split,  sometimes  even  to  the  fineuess  of  grass  fiber,  and  woven  in  con- 
nection with  the  peeled  twigs  of  other  plants,  grasses,  etc.  In  the  manufacture  of 
coil  baskets  by  the  Ilopi  Indians,  which  liavt;  the  appearance  that  would  be  pre- 
sented by  coiling  a  half-inch  rope  into  the  form  of  a  shallow  tray,  a  common  grass 
Hilariajanusil  (see)  is  used  for  the  center  of  the  "rope,"  this  being  wrapped  round 
and  round,  as  the  coil  is  being  made,  with  narrow  strips  of  the  leaves  of  this  Yucca, 
the  whole  when  knit  together  forming  a  strong  and  very  ornamental  basket,  as  the 
leaf  strips  are  dyed  in  dilfcrent  colors.  Simpler  forms  of  bowls,  trays,  and  baskets 
are  made  from  the  entire  leaves  by  plain  weaving,  mat  fashion,  using  the  broad  bases 
of  the  leaves,  which  are  turned  over  the  edge  of  the  basket,  for  a  finish.  The 
natural  yelhow  color  of  the  leaves,  showing  white  where  the  leaf  is  split,  makes  an 
attractive  article.  The  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus.  has  a  large  series  of  basketry  from  T.  ylauca, 
as  well  as  many  other  ol)ject8. 

-Specimens. — Fiber,  Mus.  V .  S.  Dept.  Ag. ;  V.  S.  Nat.  Mus. 

Yucca  cTata  is  another  narrow-leaved  species,  found  in  New  Mexico  and  along  the 
more  northerly  range  of  )'.  glaiica,  the  leaves  of  which  closely  resemble  that  species, 
though  they  are  Avhiter  in  color  and  more  brittle.  The  edges  of  the  leaves  are  also 
lilamentous.     No  reference  to  its  use  as  a  fiber  plant  can  bo  cited. 

Yucca  -whipplei. 

This  is  another  Californian  species  of  Yucca,  samples  of  fiber  and  cordage  of  which 
have  been  received,  collected  by  Dr.  E.  Palmer,  who  states  that  the  leaves  yield  a 
very  soft  white  fiber,  which  is  capable  of  being  made  into  very  nice  thread.  Indians 
use  this  fiber  to  form  a  padding  for  their  hor.se  blankets,  the  outer  part  of  which, 
being  made  of  the  fiber  from  the  Yiiccu  hacvata,  is  very  rough.  A  wooden  needle  is 
threaded  with  twine  niad«!  from  the  same  fiber,  and  the  lining  is  firmly  quilted  to 
the  saddle  blanket,  forming  a  soft  covering,  without  which  it  would  injure  the 
animal's  back. 

Yute  ( Peru)  =  Jute.     Corchoriis. 

Zaghu  and  Zaghir  (Pers.).     Ziggar  (Turk,).     Limtm  nsitatissimum. 

Zasmidium  cellare  (see  under  Fames). 

Zea  mays.     Indian  Corn. 

Endogen.     dramineiv.     A  giant  grass. 

Common  and  nativk  names. — Indian  corn,  corn,  maize  (Eng.);    Mais   (Fr.); 
Mais  and  Turkischliorn  (Ger.) ;  Trigo  de  Indas,  etc.  (Sp.) ;  Durah-shdmi  (Arab.) ; 
GuadHmenialckah  (Pers.) ;  ChoJam  (Malay) ;  Bulla,  Junri,  Makka,  Makkajdri,  etc. 
(Ind.).     {Makkai,  =  "Mecca,"  or  "  Mecca  corn.") 
Native  America;  cultivated  from  a  remote  antiquity  by  the  Peruvians  and.  Mexi- 
cans ;  unknown  to  Europe  prior  to  the  discovery  of  America.    Cultivated  throughout 
the  world,  chiefly  as  food  for  both  man  and  animals. 

The  many  Aarieties  diftVr  much  in  the  form,  size,  color,  and  hardness  of  the  grain, 
and  in  the  time  required  for  ripening.  Husk  maize,  in  which  the  kernels  are  sepa- 
rately cnveloi)ed  in  broad,  herbaceous  glumes,  may  approach  the  native  Ibrm,  Avhich 
doubtless  had  its  origin  in  tropical  America.     Mais  de  coyote,  regarded  by  some  as 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  335 

a  (listiuct  species,  is  said  to  jirow  wild  iu  some  parts  of  Mexico.  Aside  from  its  great 
value  as  a  cereal,  ordinary  field  corn  is  the  best  of  the  annual  forage  ])lants  for  soil- 
iug.  and  is  also  valne<l  and  used  by  many  farmers  for  ensilage,  being  cut  for  this 
purpose  Avheu  the  kernels  commence  to  glaze.     (F.  Lamsov-Scribtier.) 

STKrCTiRAL  FiBEU. — The  husks  or  spailus  inclosing  the  ears  of  maize  have  been 
used  in  various  ways  iu  many  countries:  (1)  As  a  liber  for  yarns,  for  crash;  (2)  for 
])laiting,  like  many  of  the  reeds;  (3)  for  tilling  mattresses  and  iu  upholstery,  and, 
lastly,  (4)  for  making  paper.  "  There  is  a  record  of  two  maize-paper  establishments 
existing  iu  Italy  iu  the  eighteenth  century."'     (J.  li.  Dodge.) 

Economic  considekatioxs. — The  commercial  industry  belougs  chiefly  to  Ger- 
many, Austria,  and  Hungary,  though  a  patent  for  a  maize-paper  process  was  issi:ed 
by  the  United  States  in  the  beginning  of  the  present  century  to  .lohu  Harkins,  of 
New  Jersey,  iu  1802;  another  was  issued  in  1838  to  Homer  Holland,  of  Massachu- 
setts, and  iu  1860  a  patent  was  issued  for  making  paper  pulp  of  corncobs.  Among 
the  first  serious  experiments  in  manufacturing  paper  from  maize  were  those  made 
just  prior  to  1860  by  Moritz  Diamaut,  a  Bohemian,  who  suggested  to  Baron  Bruck, 
Austrian  minister  of  finances,  a  process  for  making  paper  from  maize.  The  imperial 
]>aper  mill  at  Schhigelmuhl,  near  Gloggnitz.  undertook  the  manufacture,  xinder  Dia- 
mant's  direction;  the  product  was  not  quite  satisfactory  either  in  quality  or  cost  of 
manufacture.  His  first  application  for  Government  aid  was  iu  1856.  After  the 
unsuccessful  experiment,  followed  by  ert'ectual  eftorts  to  induce  jirivate  individuals 
to  continue  the  work,  he  made  a  second  request  of  the  minister  of  finance,  fortified 
with  recommendations  from  judicious,  practical  men,  and  the  experiments  were 
continued,  but  were  not  yet  fully  successful.  To  reduce  the  cost,  a  "half-stuft'  fac- 
tory "  was  erected  in*a  maize  district,  designed  to  cut  off  the  heavy  expense  of  trans- 
portation of  the  crude  material.  The  product  was  so  inferior  that  Diamaut  became 
disheartened,  absented  hiiuself,  and  was  released  from  his  position,  leaving  the  ques- 
tion unsolved.  The  cost  of  this  experiment  was  about  $13,000,  which  had  been 
advanced  by  the  imperial  paper  mill.  The  direction  of  the  Schliigelmnhl  paper  mill, 
not  disposed  to  discontinue  the  effort  to  make  a  good  and  cheap  paper,  continued  the 
experiments,  aiming  first  to  reduce  the  cost  of  production,  and,  secondly,  to  investi- 
gate the  cost  of  using  only  the  finest  husks  inclosing  the  ear,  rather  than  the  leaves 
of  the  stalk  entire.  The  result  was,  if  not  a  material  for  paper  cheap  as  rag.s,  the 
discovery  of  a  new  fiber  capable  of  being  spun  and  woven,  and  I'urnishiug,  in  its 
waste,  a  cheap  paper.  Specimens  resulting  from  these  Austrian  experiments  were 
sent  to  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  Among  them  were  yarns,  to 
be  u.sed  as  a  substitute  for  flax  iu  crash,  and  oilcloth  made  I'rom  it,  with  a  variety 
of  papers,  including  "  Royal  Chancery,"  letter  paper,  fiower  paper,  cigarette  paper, 
silk  ])aper,  and  drawing  paper,  ranging  in  price  from  $1.60  to  $4.80  per  ream. 

The  progress  made  iu  perfecting  the  manufacture  of  paper  has  of  late  been  very 
satisfactory.  Evidence  of  this  is  abundantly  afforded  in  the  specimens  recently 
received  at  the  Department  from  Dr.  Chevalier  Auer  de  Welsbach.  director  of  the 
imperial  printing  establishment  at  Vienna  and  su.perintendent  of  the  imperial  paper 
mills  at  Schlngelmuhl,  who  had  been  unremitting  in  his  efforts,  which  have  been 
crowned  with  a  large  measure  of  .success.  Among  these  papers  are  foi\ud  parchment 
and  document  papers  of  great  strength  and  durability;  tracing  paper  of  superior 
tenacity  and  transparency,  an  effect  of  the  natural  gluten  of  the  husks,  rendering 
unnecessary  the  present  expensive  process  of  its  manufacture  and  supplying 
draftsmen  with  the  cheapest  material  known;  letter  paper  in  various  styles  and 
in  several  colors,  with  a  smooth  and  polished  but  soft  surface,  which  takes  the  ink 
kindly;  "chancery  papers''  of  great  variety  in  size,  very  heavy  and  durable; 
beautiful  silk  paper  of  several  colors,  of  wonderful  delicacy  iu  structure  and  finish; 
paper  for  the  manufacture  of  artificial  flowers,  in  lilac,  rose,  blue,  green,  and 
brown,  gossamer-like  yet  strong,  weighing  but  6  pounds  to  the  ream';  and  cigarette 
l)aper,  but  little  heavier,  weighing  but  7  pounds  to  the  ream.  Of  most  varieties 
both  machine  and  hand  papers  are  produced.     A  peculiarity  of  this  paper,  due  to 


336         USEFUL  FIBER  PLANTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 

the  large  proportion  of  gluten  it  contains,  is  worthy  of  mention.  Placed  with  com- 
mon paper  in  water,  and  left  to  soak  nntil  the  latter  will  fall  to  pieces  by  its  own 
weight,  the  maize  paper  on  trial  seems  nearly  or  quite  as  tenacious  as  ever.  The 
process  of  manufacture  is  claimed  to  be  simple;  the  humblest  laborer  can  readily 
understand  it  with  little  instruction  and  practice  it  with  success.  The  cost  of  the 
husks  (and  it  seems  that  leaves  are  to  some  extent  included)  is  from  32  to  56  cents 
per  125  English  pounds  (per  centner),  or  ^d  per  ton  at  the  higher  price,  which  repre- 
sents more  the  labor  of  gathering  than  the  value  of  the  material.  This  is,  of  ccmrse, 
in  the  locality  of  their  production.  The  cost  of  extracting  the  fiber  from  100,000 
centners  (6,250  tons)  is  estimated:  For  coal  and  other  material,  $15,705;  labor,  $6,400; 
interest  and  loss,  $4,296;  raw  material,  including  local  freight,  $80,000;  total, 
$106,401.  To  this  add  for  laborers  and  repairs  to  swell  the  total  to  $100,496.  The 
product  is  10  per  cent  of  spinning  fiber,  19  per  cent  of  paper  stuft',  and  11  per  cent 
of  feed  stufi',  or  40  per  cent  in  all,  leaviug  a  loss  of  60  per  cent.  The  spinning  stufi'  is 
worth  $64,000;  paper  material,  $72,200;  feed  stuff,  $15,400;  total,  $151,600.  De  luct- 
ing  the  expenses  of  manufacturing,  a  profit  of  $42,104  is  shown.     (J.  i?.  Dodge.) 

The  use  of  mai/e  husks  in  the  United  States  is  largely  as  ujiholstory  material  in 
the  manufacture  of  mattresses,  and  for  similar  uses.  Horse  collars  are  made  of  the 
husks  or  "shucks"  in  the  South;  door  mats  arc  also  made  in  some  of  the  Northern 
States,  these  being  very  serviceable.  The  husks  split  into  strips  are  also  em]>loyed 
in  Florida  in  the  manufacture  of  "chip-hats'"  which,  when  properly  trimmed,  are 
both  stylish  and  pretty.     These  are  sold  in  the  Florida  bazaars. 

Some  of  the  Indian  tribes  of  the  West,  according  to  Dr.  Fewkes,  use  the  maize 
husks  for  plaiting  into  food  trays.  The  Moqui  tribes  are  expert  weavers  of  these 
trays  or  utensils. 

The  Kew  Mus.  maize  collections  contain  a  South  African  door  mat  made  from  husks, 
and  a  hat  from  Jamaica  from  the  same  material. 

The  prepared  pith  of  the  stalk  of  corn  is  also  made  into  many  forms  of  pottery, 
which  sell  for  high  prices  in  the  Florida  bazaars.  Some  of  these,  tinted  in  delicate 
colors— greens  and  grays — are  ex<|uisite  decoiative  novelties  for  the  drawing  room. 

Celulosk. — An  interesting  use  of  the  cellulose  of  maize  stalks,  or  corn  pith,  is 
recorded  in  a  recent  paper  by  H.  W.  Cramp,  read  before  the  American  Society  of 
Naval  Architects  and  Mining  Engineers,  December  11,  1896.  The  corn-pith  c-ellulose 
is  employed  as  a  ^lacking  material  in  the  cofferdams  in  connection  with  the  armor 
plating  of  United  States  war  vessels.  The  corn  pith  is  suitably  cleaned  and  pressed 
into  blocks  when  it  is  ready  to  use.  "A  cellulose  belt  of  3  feet  may  be  said  to  be  as 
efficient  as  6  inches  of  best  steel.''  Experiments  have  shown  that  there  is  no  danger 
of  the  substance  being  washed  out  through  shot  holes  by  the  action  of  the  sea,  and  it 
is  considered  better  in  many  ways  than  other  substances,  such  as  cocoa  fiber,  which 
have  also  been  used.  Coir  fiber,  employed  as  packing,  has  been  ignited,  while  corn 
pith  has  proved  incombustible.  A  special  advantage  results  from  its  great  absorb- 
tion  of  water,  whereby  a  shot  hole  is  soon  filled  up  through  the  swelling  of  the 
corn  pitli  packing. 

While  this  work  is  going  through  the  press,  the  following  statement  regarding 
the  preparation  and  uses  of  cellulose  has  been  received  from  Mr.  Henry  C.  Watts,  of 
the  Marsden  Company,  Philadelphia,  accompanied  by  a  series  of  specimens.  These 
form  a  part  of  the  exhibit  of  this  Department  in  the  (Jovernment  Building  at  the 
Tennessee  Centennial  Exposition  of  1897. 

The  stalk,  when  taken  from  the  field  in  October,  or  later,  is  delivered  to  the  cen- 
tral factories,  where  it  is  submitted  to  a  continuous  process,  yielding  two  distinct 
products,  one  of  value  to  the  purchaser  of  live  stock,  the  other  indispensable  to  the 
applied  arts.  The  first  product,  "live  stock  food,"  is  the  result  of  the  complete 
separation  of  the  outside  shell  or  envelojie  from  the  inner  ])ithy  portion  of  the  plant. 
This  separatiotr  is  made  by  a  machine  that  performs  its  work  perfectly,  cheaply,  and 
with  a  yield  of  about  10  tons  per  day.  Tlie  product  from  this  process  consists  of 
particles  varying  in  size  from  one-half  to  3  inches  in  length.     This  is  automatically 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  337 

delivered  to  a  grinding  mill  and  there  reduced  to  a  meal.  This  meal  is  the  finished 
food,  free — by  reason  of  its  having  been  subjected  during  the  manufacture  to  a  com- 
jiaratively  high  temperature — from  moisture  and  all  bacillic  impurities,  and  showing, 
both  by  analysis  aud  actual  feeding  tests,  a  higher  percentage  of  Hesh-producing 
ingredients  than  auy  other  fodder.  This  product  alone  gives  a  value  to  the  corn- 
stalk that  at  once  removes  it  from  the  list  of  waste  products.  The  other  product, 
from  the  central  pithy  portions  of  the  plant,  is  separated  in  the  same  machine  as  the 
above  in  the  form  of  granules  of  varying  sizes.  This  j^roduct  is  an  agglomeration  ol' 
cellular  tissue  free  from  saji  and  other  impurities.  This  gives  a  natural  pure  cellu- 
lose, easily  aud  cheaply  produced  from  an  inexhaustible  supply.  This  cellulose 
contains  the  same  elements  that  cotton  or  wood  cellulose  contains,  but  to  a  higher 
degree  of  perfection,  as  in  a  natural  product  there  are  no  extraneous  matters  to  be 
eliminated.  The  application  of  cellulose  in  the  arts  and  manufactures  has  been  lim- 
ited to  a  few  substances,  snch  as  paper,  celluloid,  etc.  The  newer  uses  are  as  yet 
mostly  in  the  experimental  stage,  but  enough  has  already  been  demonstrated  to 
warrant  the  statement  that  this  source  of  cellulose  will  make  possible  the  practical 
production  of  many  articles  that  have  heretofore  been  only  laboratory  experiments. 
That  the  field  is  large  will  be  apxireciated  when  it  is  stated  that  200  practical 
aitplications  of  cellulose  have  already  been  enumerated.  Celluloi-e  irom  this  source, 
by  reason  of  its  <iuantity  and  quality,  broadens  the  field  of  a])plication  and^daces  on 
the  raw  cornstalk  an  incalculaljle  value. 

The  following  applications  of  coru-pith  cellulose  have  already  been  uiade  and  are 
now  in  active  use:  Packing  for  battle  ships,  use  in  the  manufacture  of  a  tloor  cov- 
ering superior  to  linoleum,  paper  pulp,  mattresses,  horse  collars,  viscose,  nitrates, 
insulation  for  refrigerator  ears,  steam  pipe  and  Loiler  covering,  dry  cells  for  electric 
storage  batteries,  and  Marsden's  New  Corn  Product  (cattle  food) — the  refuse  aud  epi- 
dermis. 

'Specimens. — Mus.  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag.     Large  series  of  maize  products. 

Zebra  plant.  (See  Calathea  zebrina). 
Ziggar  (Turk.).  Linnm  usitaUssimum. 
Zizania  aquatica. 

Eudogeu.     Gramineiv.     An  annual  aquatic  grass. 

CoJi.MOx  NAMES. — Indian  rice,  wild  rice,  water  rice,  tuscarora  rice,  water  oats, 
reed. 
This  tall,  erect,  annual,  3  to  10  feet  high,  grows  in  shallow  water  along  rivers  aud 
lakes  from  Canada  southward  to  Florida  and  westward  to  Texas.  It  grows  very 
rapidlj'  in  1  to  8  feet  of  water,  aud  matures  its  seeds  in  August  or  early  in  September. 
This  grass  is  abundant  in  the  tide  waters  of  the  rivers  of  the  Middle  States,  notably 
in  the  Delaware  below  Philadelphia,  where  it  is  always  designated  as  "the  reeds." 
The  stems  are  used  by  coopers  for  making  the  joints  of  barrels  intended  to  hold 
whisky  or  petroleum  perfectly  tight.  This  grass  is  the  Manorrin  of  the  Chippewa 
Indians,  who  gather  the  grain  for  food.     (F.  Lamson-Scribner.) 

Zostera  marina.     Grass  Wrack,  or  Sea  Wrack. 

This  is  an  a([uatic  or  marine  herb,  belonging  to  the  Naiadaceo'.  "They  are  sub- 
merged fresh  or  salt  water  plants,  found  in  most  parts  of  the  world;  they  are  of 
little  economic  value''  (Guide  Kew  Mus.).  Two  species  of  the  genus  are  indigenous 
to  Britain  but  occur  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  from  Ireland  south  to  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  Tasmania,  and  New  Zealand.     It  is  also  found  in  the  United  States. 

PsEiDO-FinEK. — The  common  sea  wrack  has  leaves  varying  from  1  to  several  feet 
in  length,  and  rarely  more  than  a  quarter  of  an  inch  broad.  These  are  commonly 
used  for  packing,  aud  by  upholsterers  for  stuffing  mattresses  and  cushiofis,  beiug 
sold  for  that  purpose  under  the  names  of  I'ha  marina  or  Jlra  marina.  They  contain 
a  small  amount  of  iodine,  and  a  considerable  quantity  of  potash.  {A.  Smith.) 
12247— No.  9 22 


AUTHORITIES  CITED  AND  CONSULTED. 


The  following  list  embraces  the  principal  works,  rejwrts,  check  lists, 
and  other  publications  which  have  been  examined  as  sources  of  infor- 
mation in  the  i^reparation  of  this  work.  In  a  majority  of  instances  the 
name  of  the  author  accompanies  the  extract  which  appears  in  the  body 
of  the  Descriptive  Catalogue  of  World's  Fibers.  See  also  list  of  con- 
tributors which  follows : 

Agassiz,  Louis,  .Tourney  iu  Brazil. 

Alexander,  W.  D.,  A  Brief  History  of  the  Hawaiian  I'eople,  New  York,  Am.  Book 

Co.  (1891). 
Allison,  S.  B.,  Kamie  Culture:  Circular  of  the  I'erseverance  Fiber  Co.,  New  Orleans, 

1895. 
American  Fiber  Co.,  Cane  Fiber,  New  York  (date  not  given). 

Araniburu,  Don  Fernando,  Tecnologia  Microscopica  de  Fibras  Textiles,  Madrid,  1891. 
Arnould,  M.  C,  Concours  International  de  Machines  a  Decortiquer  La  Ramie,  1888, 

Paris,  1889. 
Bacon,  Edgar  M.,  On  Sisal  Hemp,  American  Agriculturist. 
Badliaui,  Charles  David,  A  Treatise  on  the  Esculent  Funguses  of  England,  ed.  l)y 

Frederick  Currey,  London,  1863. 
Baker,  Dr.  .T.  G.,  Description  of  Agave  decipiens,  in  Bulletin  Ivoyal  Kew  Gardens, 

1892. 

Handbook  of  The  Bromeliaceic,  London,  1889. 

Bastin,  Edson  S.,  Laboratory  Exercises  in  Botany,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1895. 
Berkeley,  Rev.  M.  J.,  Contributor,  Treasury  of  Botany,  a  Popular  Dictionary  of  the 

Vegetable  Kingdom,  London,  18b6. 
Beruardin,  M.,  Nomenclature  Usuelle  de  550  Fibres  Textiles,  etc.,  Gand,  1872. 
Bially,  Paul,  Transl.  by  Cecil  Charles,  Costa  Rica  and  her  Future,  Washington, 

1889. 
Biancoui,  F.,  La  Mexii|ue,  a  la  Porte  des  Industriels,  etc.,  Paris,  1889  (Exposition 

Report). 
Blazguez,  Ignatio,   The  Maguays;  In  Revista  Cientifica  Mexicana,  Vol.  I,  No.  1, 

1879. 
Bowman,  F.  H.,  Structure  of  the  Wool  Fiber,  Manchester,  England,  Palmer  and 

Howe,  18a5. 

Structure  of  Cotton  Fiber,  Manchester,  England,  Palmer  and  Howe,  1882. 

Brown,  Samuel  C,  First  Annual  Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Statistics,  Labor  and 

Industries  of  New  Jersey,  1878. 
Ceylon   Commission,  Official  Handbook   of  the    Ceylon    Courts,   W.   C.    E.,   1893, 

Colombo,  1893. 
Chardonnet,  Count  M.  de,  Sur  un  Sole  Artiticielle,  Paris,  1889. 
Charley,  William,  Flax  and  Its  Products,  London,  1862. 
Christy,  Dr.  Thomas,  Culture  of  Flax,  Reprinted  from  the  Irish  Textile  .Journal, 

Belfast  (no  date). 
Crookes,  William,  A  Handbook  of  Dyeing  .and  Calico  Printing,  London,  1874. 
Contributed  Article:  Fibers  used  for  Brushmaking,  the  Indian  Agriculturist,  Feb., 

1893. 
338 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  339 

Coville,  Frederick  V.,  Indian  Basketry,  iu  American  Anthropologist,  Oct.,  lSf)2. 
Crawford,  U.  S.  Consul  Gen'l  St.  Petersburg-.  Flax  Culture,  Sitecial  Consular  Kept., 

Washington,  1891. 
Cross,  C.  F.,  Miscellaneous  Fibers:  In  Reports  on  the  Colonial  Sections  of  the  Colonial 

and  Indian  Exhibition  of  188(5,  London,  1887. 
Cross,  Bevan,  and  King,  in  association  with  K.  .Joynsou,  Kept,  on  Indian  Fibers  an<l 

Fibrous  Substances.  Col.  and  Ind.  Exh.,  188n,  Loudon,  1887. 
Cross  and  Bevan,  Cellulose,  Lfuidon,  1895. 
Cubas,  Antonio,  Garcia,  Trans,  by  ^Yillianl  Thompson,  Mexico,  its  Trade,  Industries 

and  Resources.  Mexico,  1893. 
Damnier,   Otto,    Illustriertes    I^exikon   der  Verfalschungen,  pub.  by  J.  .1.   \\'eber, 

Leipzig,  1887. 
De  Gama,  .Jose  de  Saldanha,  M.  D.,  Notes  on  Textile  Plants  of  Brazil,  Phil.  Int.  Exh., 

1876. 
De  Moor,  V.  P.  (4.,  Traite  de  la  Culture  du  Lin,  Bruxelles,  1855. 
Department  of  Agriculture,  On  .lute  Culture.     Monthly  Reports,  V.  S.     Department 

of  Agriculture.     (Various  repts.  1870-1875.) 
Dodge,  Charles  Richards,  A  Report  on  the  Vegetaltle  Fibers  in  the  Collection  of  the 

Department  of  Agriculture,  Annual  Rept.  Dept.  Ag.,  1879. 
De8cri])tive  Catalogue  of  Manufactures  from  Native  AVoods,  Worhl's  Ind.  and 

Cotton  Exp.,  New  Orleans,  1885,  Washington,  1886. 
Reports  on  Fibers,  etc.,  Reports  U.  S.  Commission  to  Universal  Exp.  Paris,  1889, 

Vols.  II  and  V,  Washington,  1891. 
Dodge,  .1.  Richards,  Maize  Paper,  Annual  Rept.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  1863. 
Elliott,  G.  F.  Scott,  A  Naturalist  in  Mid  Africa,  London,  1896. 
Enriguez,  R.  de  Zayas,  Les  Estados  l^nidos  Mexicanos  sus  condiciones  naturales  y 

sus  Elements  de  Prosperidad,  Mexico,  1893. 
Ernst,  Dr.  Adolphns,  Fibers:  A  Descriptive  Catalogue  of  the  Venezuelan  Depart- 
ment, Phil.  Int.  Exh.,  1876. 
Fibers:  The  United  States  of  Venezuela  in  1893,   World's  Columbian  Exposi- 
tion, 1893. 

La  Exposicion  Nacional  de  Venezuela  en  1883,  Caracas,  1886. 

Evans,  Walter  H.,  Botany  of  Cotton:  The  Cotton   Plant,  Bull.  No.   33,   Off.   Exp. 

Stations,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Washington,  1896. 
Favier,  P.  L.,  Nouvelle  Industrie  de  La  Ramie,  Paris,  1886. 
Fawcett,   Wm.,  An   Index  to  the  Economic  Plants  of  the  Vegetable  Kingdom  in 

.Jamaica,  1891. 

Bulletins  of  the  Botanical  Department  of  .Jamaica  (series). 

Fernow,  B.   F.,  Wood  Pulp  Industries,    Report,  Forestry  Division,  Annual  Report 

U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1890. 
Fewkes,  ,T.  Walter,  A  Contribution  to  Ethnobotany,  American  Anthropologist,  .Jan- 
uary, 1896. 
Fibrilia,  A  Substitute  for  Cotton,  Boston.  1861. 
Foaden,  George  P.,  Cotton  Culture  in  Egypt,  Bull.  42.  Office  Expt.  Sta.,  Dept.  .\gri- 

culture,  Washington,  1897. 
Forbes,  Walter  T.,  Ramie,  New  York,  1886. 
Fremy,  E.,  Chimie  Vegetale,  La  Ramie,  Paris,  1886. 

Gadea,  Dr.  Alberto  L.,  Cortezade  Damajuhato,  Soc.  Geog.  de  Lima,  Lima,  Peru,  1894. 
Gilroy,  Clinton  G.,  The  Art  of  Weaving,  New  York,  1844. 
Gordils,  .J.  V.,  Cultuo  de  La  Ramie  en  Venezuela,  Caracas,  1886. 
Gray,  Dr.  Asa,  Introduction  to  Structural  ami  Systematic  Botany,  New  York,  1864. 

The  Elements  of  Botany,  New  York,  1887. 

Griffin,  R.  B.,  and  A.  D.  Little,  The  Chemistry  of  Paper  Making,  New  York,  Howard 

Lockwood  and  Co.,  1894. 
Guilfoyle,  Dr.  William  R.,  Fibers  from  Plants,  Eligible  for  Industrial  Culture  and 

Experiments  in  Victoria  (pamphlet),  Melbourne,  1894. 


340  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

Guzmau,  David  J.,  Catalogo  General  de  los  Objetos  que  la  Kei)iiblica  de  Costa  Rica 

envia  a  la  Expos.  Univ.  de  Chicago,  San  Jose,  1892. 
Hammond,  Harry,  Contributor,  The  Cotton  Plant.     (See  Evans.) 
Handy,  R.  B.,  Contributor,  The  Cotton  Plant.     (See  Evans.) 
Hart,  J.  H.,  Annual  Report  on  the  Royal  Botanical  Gardens  of  Trinidad. 
Hartig,  Robert,  Textbook  of  Diseases  of  Trees,  Transl.  William  Somerville,  London, 

1894. 
Hartshorn,  Edwin  A.,  American  Hemp  Culture,  Address  read  before  the  N.  Y.  State 

Ag'l  Soc,  Nov.,  1889. 
Harvey,  W.  H.,  Fish  Hues  froiu  Algae:    In  Nereis  Boreali-Americaua.  Smithsonian 

Institution,  1858. 
Hassack,  Dr.  Karl,  Monatsschrift  fur  den  Orient  (.January,  1891). 
Havard,  Dr.  V.  (U.S.A.),  Basket  work  of  North  Am.  Indians:  (iardeu  and   Forest, 

Vol.  Ill,  New  York,  1890. 
Hector,  Sir  .James,  Phorraiuni  tcnax  as  a  Fibrous  Plant,  New  Zealand,  1889. 
Hilgard,  Dr.  E.  W.,  Composition  of  tlie  Rainie  Plant,  Bull.  No.  94,  California  Ag'l 

Exp.  Station. 

Fiber  Plants  for  California,  Bull.  No.  90,  California  Ag'l.  Exp.  Station. 

Hillebrand,  Dr.  William,  Flora  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  London,  New  York,  and 

Heidelberg,  1888. 
Hitchcock,  Romyn,  Textile   Fibers:   Preliminary  List,  in    National    Museum,  Proc. 

U.  S.  National  .Museum,  1884. 
Hooker,  Jos.  D.,  and  B.  Dayden  Jackson,  Index  Kewensis,  an  Enumeration  of  the 

Genera  and  Species  of  Flowering  Plants,  etc.,  Oxford,  1893-1895. 
Hyde,  John,  Flax  Production:  Bull.  No.  177,  Eleventh  Census  of  the  United  States, 

1892. 
Ide  &  Christie,  Fiber  Brokers,  London,  Monthly  Quotations  of  the  Fiber  Market. 

Various  reports  on  the  value  of  tibers,  in  Bulletins  of  the  Royal  Kew  Gardens. 

Im  Thurn,  Everard  F.,  Among  the  Indians  of  Guiana,  London,  1883. 

Indian  Commission,    Handbook  of  Exhibits,  Forest   Dept.  of  the  Gov't  of  India, 

World's  Columbian  Exposition,  1893,  C^alcutta,  1893. 
Kauffman,  C.  C,  Ramie:  (Culture  and  Manufacture),  New  Orleans  (no  date). 
Keller,  Ferdinand,  The  Lake  Dwellings  of  Switzerland  and  other  parts  of  Europe, 

translated  and  arranged  by  .John  E<lward  Lee,  London,  Longmans,  Green  &  Co., 

1866,  97  plates. 
Kerr,  Hem  Cbunder,  Rejjort  on  the  Cultivation  of,  and  Trade  in,  .Jute  in  Bengal,  and 

on  Indian  Fibers,  Calcutta,  1874. 
Kew,  Royal  (hardens.  Official  Guide  to  the  Museum  of  Economic   Botany,  London, 

1895. 

Monthly  Bulletins,  1887  to  1896. 

Knecht  Rawson  and  Loewenthal,  A  Manual  of  Dyeing,  two  vols.,  London,  1893. 
Landtsheer,  Norbert  de.  La  Verito  sur  La  Ramie,  Bruxelles,  1891. 
La  Revista,  Agricola,  publicado  baio  los  auspices  de  la  Secretaria  de  fomcnto,  Mex- 
ico.    (Current  serial.) 
Le  Franc,  "The  Ramie,"  New  Orleans,  1889  (pamidilet). 

Liotard,  L.,  Material  in  India  Suitable  for  the  Manufacture  of  Paper,  Calcutta,  1880. 
Liifgren,  Alberto,  Boletim  da  Commissfio  Geographica  E  Geologica  de  sao  Paulo,  N. 

10,  1895. 
Lugger,  Otto,  A  Treatise  on  Flax  Culture,  Bull.  13,  Miini.  Ag'l  Exp.  Sta. 
Mason,  Dr.  Otis  T.,  Basket  Work  of  the  North  American  Aborigines,  Rept.  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  1883-84. 

Cradles  of  the  American  Aborigines,  Report  National  Museum,  1886-87. 

Masters,  Dr.  M.  T.,  Contributor,  Treasury  of  Botany.     (See  Berkeley. ) 
Mertens,  Dr.  H.,  Fish  lines  from  Algie,  In  Hooker's  Bot.  Misc. 

Michotte,  Felicien,  La  Ramie,  La  decortication  et  son  Dcgommage,  Extrait  du  Bul- 
letin de  la  Soc.  des.  Ag.  do  France,  Paris,  1889. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  341 

IVficIiotte,  Felicien,  Traitfi  ScientiH(me  et  ludnstriel,  Des  Plants  Textiles,  Paris,  1893. 

Mil]si)angli,  Charles  Frederick,  Contributions  to  the  Flora  of  Yncatan,  Bot.  Series, 
Field  Columbian  Museum,  Vol.  I,  No.  1,  Chicago,  1895. 

Moorhead,  J.  K.,  with  Dr.  John  A.  Warder  and  Charles  .Jackson,  committee:  Report, 
Flax  and  Hemp  Commission  of  1863,  Washington,  1865. 

Moreira,  Nicolan  ,1.,  M.  D.,  Historical  Notes  Concerning  Vegetable  Fibers  (of  Brazil), 
Phil.  Int.  Exh.,  1876. 

^[orris,  Dr.  D.,  Cantor  Lectures:  On  Commercial  Fibers,  London,  1895. 

Mueller,  Dr.  Ferd.  von,  Report  on  the  V«'getable  Products  exhibited  in  the  Intercolo- 
nial Exhibition  of  1866-67,  Melbourne,  1867. 

Mil  Lord,  A.  Isabel,  The  Agaves  of  the  United  States,  Seventh  Annual  Report  Mis- 
souri Botanical  G.arden,  1896. 

Murphy,  J.  McLeod,  Monthly  Reports  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture  for  1869-70. 

McLain,  U.  S.  Consul,  Thomas  J.,  Sisal  Hemp  in  the  Bahamas,  Consular  Report  103, 
]March,  1889. 

Norlhrup,  John  J.,  Cultivation  of  Sisal  Hemp  in  the  Bahamas,  Popular  Science 
Monthly,  March,  1891. 

Oliva,  F.,  La  Naturaliza  (Sclent,  serial  published  by  Soc.  Mex.  de  Hist.  Nat.,  since 
1870 — seven  volumes). 

Orton,  Prof.  James,  The  Andes  and  the  Amazon,  New  York,  1876. 

Palmer,  Dr.  Edward,  Contributions  from  the  National  Herbarium,  Vol.  I,  Wash- 
ington. 

Plants  Used  by  Indians  in  the  United  States:  American  Naturalists,  1878. 

Perrine,  Dr.  Henry,  Report  on  Tropical  Fiber  Plants,  Senate  Document  No.  300, 
Twenty-fifth  Congress,  third  session,  Wasbington,  18.38. 

Powers,  Stephen,  Contributions  to  American  Ethnology. 

Preston,  G.,  Bahamian  Commissioner,  Report  to  Gov.  Shea  on  the  Sisal  Hemp  Indus- 
try of  Yucatan,  1889. 

Procter,  John  R.,  Culture  of  Flax  and  Hemj),  Geological  Survey  of  Kentucky  (about 
1880). 

Pursli,  F.,  Flora  Americie  Septentrionalis,  London,  1814. 

Rae,  .Tames  M.,  Report  on  the  Fiber  Industry  in  the  Bahamas,  Nassau,  1891. 

RawliTison,  George,  The  Seven  Great  Monarchies  of  the  Ancient  Eastern  World,  N.  Y., 
1.^  8 1 . 

Reiss  ( W.)  and  Stiiljel  (A.),  The  Necropolis  of  Ancon  in  Peru,  a  contribution  to  our 
kuiiwledge  of  the  culture  and  industries  of  the  Empire  of  the  Incas,  being  the 
results  of  excavations  made  on  the  spot,  translated  by  Prof.  A.  H.  Keane,  with 
the  aid  of  the  General  Administration  of  the  Royal  Museums  of  Berlin,  Berlin, 
A.  Asher  &  Co.,  1880-1887,  fol.  15  volumes. 

Renouard,  Alfred,  Fils,  Etudes  sur  La  Culture  le  Rouissage  et  le  Teillage  du  Lin, 
Lille  (no  date). 

Rliiud,  William,  A  History  of  the  Vegetable  Kingdom,  London,  1855. 

Robays,  A.  J.  Van,  Practische  Verhandeling  over  de  Vlasteelt,  Ghent,  1887. 
-Roezl,  Dr.  Benito,  The  Ramie  Plant,  its  Propagation,  Culture,  and  Cleaning  Process, 
New  Orleans,  1868. 

Roux,  Charles,  Notice  sur  La  Ramie,  Paris  (no  date;  about  1892). 

Royle,  .1.  Forbes,  The  Fibrous  Plants  of  India,  fitted  for  Cordage,  Clothing,  and 
Paper,  London,  1855. 

Ryan,  .John,  Claussen-Processes :  The  Preparation  of  Long-line  flax-cotton,  etc.,  Lon- 
don, 1852. 

Sachs,  .Julius,  Text-Book  of  Botany,  Translated  by  S.  H.  Vines,  Oxford,  England, 
CIaren<lon  Press. 

Sadtlcr,  Dr.  Samuel  P.,  A  Handbook  of  Industrial  Organic  Chemistry,  Philadelphia, 
1891. 

Sargent,  Prof.  Charles  S.,  Report  on  the  Forests  of  North  America:  vol.  9,  Tenth 
Census  of  the  i:.  S.,  Wash.,  1884. 


342  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

Sargent,  Prof.  Charles  S.,  The  Silva  of  North  America  (12  vols.),  Boston  au<l  New 

York, 1891. 
Savorgnan,  M.  A.,  Manual  Hoepli:  Coltirazione  eil  Industria  delle  Piante  Tessili, 

etc.,  Milan,  1891. 
Schaeffer,  Dr.  George  0..  Vegetable  Fiber:  Patent  Office  (Agricultural)  Rejtort  for 

1859. 
Schott,  Dr.,  the  .Jenequeu,  or  Sisal  Hemp  :  Annual  Kept.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agriculture,  1^!69. 
Scribner,  F.  Lamson-,  Useful  and  Ornamental  Grasses:  Bull.  3,  Div.  of  Agrostology, 

U.  S.  Dept.  Ag.,  Washington,  1896. 
Simonds,  P.  D.,  The  Commercial  Products  of  the  Vegetable  Kingdom,  London,  1854. 
Smith,  A.,  Contributor,  Treasury  of  Botany.     (See  Berkeley.) 
Smithers,  U.  S.  Consul,  E.  .J..  Chines^e  Straw-braid  Industry,  Consular  Rept.  No.  93, 

May,  1888. 
Sodre,  Dr.  Lauro,  Textile  Fibers:  The  State  of  Para,  Notes  for  the  World's  Colum- 
bian Exposition,  1893,  New  York,  1893. 
Spon's  Encyclopedia  of  the  Industrial   Arts,  Manufactures,  and  Commercial  Prod- 
ucts, London  and  New  York,  1879. 
Squier,  E.  G.,  Tropical  Fibers,  and  their  Economic  Extraction,  New  York,  1861. 
St.  Hill,  T.  J.,  Fibers  of  Trinidad,  U.  S.  Consular  Report  No.  125,  Washington,  1891. 

(In  report  of  U.  S.  Consul  Pierce.) 
Statistics,  Bureau  of,  U.  S.  Treasury  Dept.,  Recent  Reports  on  the  Foreign  Commerce 

and  Navigation  of  the  United  States. 
Stuart,  E.  Jerome,  The  Sisal  Hemp  Industry  in  Yucatan,  Bulletin,  Koyal  (iardens, 

Kew,  November,  1892, 
Stubbs,  Prof.  W.  C,  Ramie:  Bull.  32,  Exp.  Stations  of  Louisiana,  Baton  Rouge,  1895. 
Sudworth,  George  B.,  Nomenclature  of  the  Arborescent  Flora  of  the  United  States, 

8v.,  pp,  419:  Bull.  No.  14,  Div.  of  Forestry,  Washington,  1897. 
Swaab,  S.  L.,  Fibrous  Substances,  Indigenous  and  Exotic,  London,  1864. 
Tobin,  John  J.,  Fourth  Biennial  Report,  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics  of  the  State  of 

California,  1889-90,  Sacramento,  1890. 
Todd,  S.  Edwards,    Flax  Culture:    lu   Manual   of   Flax   Culture   (Prize   Essays), 

Orange,  Judd  Company,  New  York,  1884, 
Toobe,  H.  B.,  Ramie:  Notes  on  its  Culture,  New  York, 
Trabut,  L.,  Extraits  d'une  fitude  sur  IHalfa,  Gouvernement  General,  1888,  Alger, 

1889. 
Trealease,  William,  Notes  and  Observations  on  Yucca,  Third  Anuual  ]\e])ort,  Missouri 

Botanical  Garden,  1892. 
Turner,  Alfred  R.,  jr..  Spinning  the  Threads,  Jubilee  number  Dry  Goods  Economist, 

New  York,  1896. 
Varney,  Capt.  A.  L.,  U.  S.  A.,  Bristle  Fibers:    Rejiort  of  the  Chief  of  Ordnance, 

Washington,  1883. 
Vasey,  Dr.  George,  the  Agricultural  Grasses  and  Forage  Plants  of  the  U.  S.,  Sjtecial 

Bulletin  Div.  of  Botany,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agriculture,  Washington,  1889;  (illustra- 
tions of  grasses  used). 
Vetillart,  M.,  Etudes  sur  les  fibres  v<^g^tales  employees  dans  Tindustrie,  Paris,  Fir- 

min,  Dodot  et  Cie.,  1876. 
Vignon,  Ldo,  La  Sole,  Paris,  J.  B.  Bailliere  et  Fils,  1890. 

Wallace,  Alfred  Russel,  Palm  Trees  of  the  Amazon,  London,  John  Van  Voorst,  1853. 
Warden,  Alex.  J.,  The  Linen  Trade,  Ancient  and  Modern,  London,  1864. 
Warraud,  C.  B.,  The  Palmetto  and  Its  Products  (pamphlet),  Savannah,  Ga.  (no  date). 
Waterhouse,  Prof.  S.,  Report  on  Jute  Culture,  Sp'l  Rept.  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag.,  1883. 
AVatson,  J.  Forbes,  Desc.  Catalogue  of  the  Indian  Department:  The  International 

Exhibition  of  1862,  London,  1862. 

On  the  Fiber  Plants  of  India,  Journal  Society  of  Arts,  May,  1860. 

Report  on  the  Preparation  and  Use  of  Rhea  Fiber,  London,  1875. 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  343 

Watt,  Dr.  George,  A  Dictionary  of  the  Economic  Products  of  India,  in  six  volumes, 
Calcutta,  1889. 

Watt,  Dr.  George,  Selections  from  the  Records  of  the  Goveriunent  of  India,  Revenue 
and  Agricultural  Dejit.  (series). 

Weber,  Dr.,  and  Felicien  Micliotte,  L'Utilizatiou  de  Agave,  Revue  des  Sciences 
Xaturelles  Appliquces,  Paris,  1894. 

White,  Prof.  H.  C,  Contributor,  The  Cotton  Plant.     (See  Evans.) 

Whitney,  Prof.  Milton,  Contributor,  The  Cotton  Plant.     (See  Evans.) 

Rice  Culture,  Paris  Exp.  Report,  Vol.  V.,  1891. 

Wolf,  Theodore,  Ecuador.  Velasco  Historia  del  Reino  de  C^uito,  (Ed.  of  1844), 
Vol.  I. 

Wood,  J.  Medley,  Durban  Botanic  Society,  Reports  on  Natal  Botanic  Gardens,  Dur- 
ban, 1884-1894. 

Wright,  Charles.  Report  of  the  Commission  of  Inquiry  to  Santo  Domingo,  Wash- 
ington, 1871  (subreport  XIX). 

Zerras,  Josef,  The  Cultivation  of  Ramie,  MS.,  Report  Brussels  Exh.,  1888. 


LIST  OF  CONTRIBUTORS. 


The  following  is  a  partial  list  of  the  names  of  those  ■who  have  siqtplied  the  author 

with  direct  information  in  the  form  of  original  notes,  correspondence,  lists  of  fiber 

plants,  or  contributed  articles.     In  a  few  instances  extracts  have  been  made  from 

letters  and  commnnieations  to  the  Otilice  of  Fiber  Investigations  received  in  its  regu- 
lar w  ork : 

Allen,  D.  K.,  Yuma,  Arizona,  correspondence. 

Allison,  Samuel  B.,  Mechanical  Engineer  and  Fiber  l^x))ert,  notes  and  corresi>ondence. 

Andrews,  U.  S.  Consul  II.  W.,  Hankow,  China,  correspondence. 

l>all,  A.  E.,  Rushford,  Minn.,  notes  nnd  correspondence. 

Bier,  George  H.,  Key  West,  Fla.,  correspondence. 

Bosse,  Eugene,  Incourt.  l?elginm  (formerly  of  Minnesota),  notes  of  experience   in 
Hax  culture. 

Boyce,  Silas  S.,  Fiber  Expert,  New  York  City  (formerly  ladling  Fork,  Miss.),  corre- 
spondence. 

Cooper,  J.  W.,  Ashland,  Kans.,  correspondence. 

Coville,  Frederick  Y.,  Botanist  U.  S.  Dept.  Ag.,  notes  and  contributions. 

Damseaux,  Prof.  Adolphe,  State  Exp't  Station,  Gemblonx,  Belgium,  notes  on  tiax. 

Uewey,  Lyster  H.,  Asst.  Bot.  Div.  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Ag.,  notes  and  assistance. 

Dodge,  .1.  Richards,  Washington,  D.  C,  contribution  on  Cotton  in  the  United  States. 

Dorca,  A.,  Lima,  Pern,  MS.  lists  of  the  fibers  of  Peru. 

Du  Vuyst,  Paul,  Agronome  de  I'Etat,  Belgium,  correspondence  and  specimens. 

Ernst,  Dr.  Adolphus,  Director  Nat.  Mus.,  Caracas,  Yene/.,  notes  on  the  fibers   of 
Mex.  and  S.  Am.  (botanical  and  economic). 

Escobar,  Romulo,  City  of  Mexico,  collections  and  notes,  fibers  of  Mexico. 

Favier,  P.  A.,  Paris,  France,  notes  and  specimens. 

Fawcett,  William,  Director  Botanical  1  )ei)artnient  of  .Jamaica,  notes  and  correspond- 
ence. 

Fewkes,  J.  Walter,  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  notes  on  Hopi  Indian  fibers. 

Flint,  Eddy  &  Co.,  New  York  City,  statements  regarding  Cuba  bast. 

Fremerey,  Felix,  Bakerstield,  Cal.,  notes  on  cultivation  of  fil)er  plants. 

Galloway,  B.  T.,  Chief,  Div.  Yeg.  Physiology  IT.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  contribution. 

Guilfoyle,  Dr.  William  R.,  Director  Botanic  Gardens,  Yictoria,  MS.  notes  accomp. 
Yict.  Coll.,  Phil.  Int.  Exh.,  1876,  etc. 

Hall,  R.  J.  (President  Minn.  State  Alliance),  correspondence. 

Harris,  Dr.  J.  Y.,  Key  AVest,  Fla  ,  notes  of  exjierience  in  fiber  culture. 

Hart,  J.  H.,  Directm-,  Roy.  Bot.  Gardens,  Trinidad,  notes  and  correspondence. 

Havard,  Dr.  Y.,  U.  S.  A.,  Fort  Slocum,  New  Rochelle,  N.  Y.,  notes  on  N.  Am.  Indian 
fibers. 

Hough,  Walter,  U.  S.  Nat.  Mns.,  notes. 

Irish,  Charles  W.,  notes  on  Asclepias  fiber. 

Janvier,  Pere  et  Fils.,  Le  Mans,  France,  correspondence. 

Knapp,  E.  N.,  Tarpon  Springs,  Fla.,  correspondence. 

Koenig,  Henry,  Schluersburg,  Mo.,  corresi>ondence. 

Landtsheer,  Norbert  de,  Brussels,  Belgium,  correspondence. 

Latimer,  William,  Wilmington,  N.  C,  notes  and  specimen  of  pine  fiber,  in  series. 
344 


DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE.  345 

Livingston,  James,  Yale,  Midi.,  notes  of  experience  in  flax  indnstry;  speoimcns. 

Mason,  Dr.  O.  T.,  Curator,  Dept.  of  Ethnology,  U.  8.  Nat.  Mas.,  notes. 

Monroe,  Kalpb  M.,  Cocoanut  (irove,  Fla.,  report  and  correspondence. 

Morris,  Dr.  D.,  Asst.  Director,  Royal  Gardens,  Kew,  notes,  correspondence,  and 
botanical  references. 

Kiederlein,  Gustav,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  notes  relating  to  the  fibers  of  Argentina. 

Paniuiel,  Prof.  L.  H.,  B(ttauist,  Iowa,  State  Ag'l  Exp.  Station,  correspondence. 

Panknin,  Dr.  C.  F.,  Charleston,  S.  C,  notes  and  specimens. 

Quelch,  J.  J.,  mannscript  notes  accompanying  exhibit  of  British  Guiana,  W.  0.  E., 
1893. 

Ramirez,  Dr.  ,Tos^,  Botanical  Dept.,  Inst.  Medico.  Nac'l  Mexico,  botanical  notes  on 
the  fibers  of  Mexico. 

Ranson,  Robert,  Titnsville,  Fla.,  correspondence. 

Robinson,  John,  Peabody  Inst.,  .Salem,  Mass.,  notes. 

Roth,  Jean,  Storms  River  Fiber  Works,  South  Africa,  notes  and  correspondence 
through  Dr.  Harris. 

Saunders,  William,  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  notes. 

Seaman,  Prof.  William  H.,  U.  S.  Patent  Office,  Washington,  D.  C,  contribution  of 
article  On  the  Identification  of  Fibers. 

Smith,  T.  Albee,  Inventor,  Baltimore,  ISId.,  notes  and  correspondence. 

Steele,  E.  S.,  Asst.  Div.  of  Botany,  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  notes  and  editoiial  assist- 
ance on  the  l)otanical  nomenclature. 

Storer  &  Co.,  Robert  B.,  Boston,  Mass.,  notes  on  the  marks  of  imjiorted  varieties  of 
flax. 

Snd  worth,  George  B.,  Botanist,  Forestry  Div.  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  notes. 

Tassin,  Dr.  Wirt,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  notes. 

Tawara,  K.,  Agricultural  Bureau,  Tokyo,  Japan,  notes  and  collections,  fibersof  Japan. 

Townsend,  O.  F.,  Yuma,  Arizona,  corrc^spondence. 

Wallace  &  Co.,  F.  E.,  Fiber  Brokers,  New  York  City,  notes  and  specimens  of  com- 
mercial fibers. 

Warden,  F.  H.,  Minneapolis,  Minn.  (Flax  Culture),  notes,  correspondence,  and 
specimens. 

Watts,  Henry  C,  Marsden  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  notes  on  corn  pith  cellulose. 

Wilson,  Dr.  Thomas,  Curator  Prehistoric  Anti(iuities,  U.  S.  National  Museum,  contri- 
bution of  article  on  Ijace. 


APPENDIX  A. 


BRIEF  STATEMENTS  REGARDING  FIBER  MACHINERY. 

In  countries  like  the  United  States,  wliere  the  rates  of  wages  are  on 
so  dift'erent  a  i)huie  from  the  prices  paid  for  hxbor  in  countries  like 
China  and  India,  the  success  of  neAV  liber  industries  is  largely  depend- 
ent upon  mechanical  means  for  extracting  the  raw  product  after  the 
crop  has  been  grown. 

Cotton  cultivation  in  the  United  States  only  began  to  be  extended 
after  the  invention  of  the  Whitney  cotton  gin,  and  in  like  manner  the 
establishment  of  the  sisal  hemp  industry  outside  of  Yucatan  has  only 
been  possible  since  two  or  three  improved  automatic  machines  for 
separating  the  fiber  have  been  placed  on  the  market. 

The  production  of  China  grass  or  ramie  in  many  countries  is  so 
dependent  upon  the  settlement  of  the  machine  question  that  not  a 
pound  of  commercial  fiber  is  produced  in  these  countries,  although,  as 
in  the  American  Gulf  States,  the  jdant  thrives  in  the  i)ro])er  soils,  and 
the  machine  question  has  been  before  the  j)eople  for  thirty  years. 
What  is  true  of  the  cotton,  the  sisal  hemp,  and  the  ramie  industries  is 
true  of  other  possible  American  fiber  industries,  not  excepting  the  pro- 
duction of  hemp  and  flax,  the  fiber  of  which  the  perfecting  of  several 
special  machines  would  largely  aid  in  extracting. 

In  China  the  fiber  of  Boehmeria  is  extracted  by  hand,  and  the  par- 
tially degummed  "grass"  can  be  laid  down  in  jSTew  York  City  at  0  cents 
per  pound.  In  India  the  bast  of  jute  is  thrashed  oft"  by  tbe  ryot  who 
stands  waist  deep  in  a  pool  of  stagnant  water,  and  it  can  be  sold  in 
New  York  at  3  cents  per  pound.  American  farmers,  who  are  used  to 
the  finest  agricultural  implements  that  can  be  j)rocured  will  never  resort 
to  Old  World  primitive  methods — nor  can  they  afford  to  do  so — and  the 
machine  becomes  the  most  important  factor  in  the  i^roblem. 

On  these  pages  it  is  not  j^ossible  to  give  a  detailed  account  of  the 
vast  number  of  fiber  machines  tbat  have  been  brought  to  public  notice 
during  the  past  fiftj'  years,  or  even  to  enumerate  them,  and,  therefore, 
general  statements  only  can  be  made. 

FLAX  MACHINERY. 

It  is  a  little  surprising  in  this  age  of  invention  that  the  machine  used 
for  scutching  flax  in  many  countries  to-day,  if  machine  it  may  be  called, 
is  older  than  the  invention  of  the  steam  engine  by  Watt.     The  scutch- 
ing mills  in  Belgium,  visited  by  the  writer,  were  supplied  with  this 
3-16 


FLAX    MACHINERY. 


347 


appliance.  Through  the  rooms,  iroiu  end  to  end,  runs  a  wrought-iron 
shaft  to  which  are  attached,  at  iutervals  of  a  few  feet,  systems  of 
wooden  beater  bhides,  which  revolve  rapidly. 

The  workmen  stand  in  small  compartments  partitioned  off  from  the 
room,  but  open  on  one  side,  the  flax  being  presented  to  the  action  of 
the  wooden  blades  through  a  bevel-edged  slit  in  the  side  of  the  parti- 
tion. The  blades  as  they  revolve  strike  the  already  broken  flax,  held 
flrmly  in  the  hand,  knocking  out  the  shive  or  waste  matter,  when  the 
opposite  end  is  cleaned  in  the  same  manner.  The  accompanying  illus- 
tration, from  Spon,  will  explain  the  device.  See  fig.  103;  a  is  the  shaft; 
h  the  supi)orting  pillars  of  iron  or  wood;  c  the  wiper  ring,  to  which  the 
blades  d  are  attached;  e  is  the  partition;  /the  bracket  at  top,  by  which 
it  is  stayed  to  the  beam  g^  which  connects  the  line  of  pillars;  h  is  the 
opening  through  which  the  flax  is  presented 
to  the  blades.  These  blades  are  sometimes 
long  and  narrow,  somewhat  resembling  the 
blade  of  an  oar. 

The  fiber  of  flax  surrounds  a  slender  stem, 
straw-like  or  sometimes  woodj',  which,  by 
retting,  is  easily  broken,  and  the  filaments 
j)artially  separating  from  the  crushed  bits 
are  readily  freed  from  them  by  the  oi)eia- 
tiou  of  beating.  A  perfect  machine,  there- 
fore, would  be  one  that  would  break  the 
straw  or  wood  into  fragments  without  inju 
ry  to  the  fiber,  separate  the  long  filaments 
from  all  waste  matters  perfectly,  doing 
away  with  hand  labor,  and  accomplishing 
the  work  without  waste  of  fiber  and  at  eco- 
nomical cost.  It  would  seem  a  simple  prop- 
osition, but  from  the  fact  that  none  of  the 
many  improved  machines  that  have  been 

brought  to  public  notice  have  been  largely  adopted  by  mill  men,  and 
the  old-fashioned  berth  scutching  described  above  is  still  practiced  even 
in  this  country,  we  may  infer  that  the  machine  scutchers  are  not  fully 
practicable.  These  difler  in  form  and  the  manner  in  which  they  operate 
as  well  as  in  the  quality  and  quantity  of  flax  produced,  but  they  need 
not  be  described  here.  Machines  that  the  Department  has  taken  cog- 
nizance of  are  described  in  Fiber  Investigations  Series,  Report  No.  1, 
pages  21  to  20;  Report  No.  4,  same  series,  page  70;  Annual  Report, 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  1893,  page  578.  See  also 
Spon's  Encyclopedia,  pages  970-975. 

An  improved  scutching  machine  to  prepare  the  fiber  for  market  is  a 
desideratum,  but  two  other  machines  are  needed  in  establishing  the 
flax  industry  in  the  United  States — an  economical  thrasher  to  save 
the  seed  without  injury  to  the  straw,  and  a  flax-pulling  machine  to  do 


Fig.  103.— Flax  scutching  device. 


348  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

away  with  the  laborious  and  costly  operation  of  band  pulling.  Several 
machines  have  been  invented  in  the  latter  classes,  but  there  is  room 
for  imijrovement  in  tlax  thrashers,  and  the  tiax-pulling  machines  are 
still  in  the  experimental  stage  (see  Annual  Report,  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  1803.  p.  578,  and  Eeport  4,  Fiber  Investi- 
gations Series,  Department  of  Agriculture,  pp.  29,  31). 

RAMIE   DECORTICATION. 

It  is  not  important  in  the  limits  of  this  paper  to  record  here  the  (;on- 
secutive  history  of  ramie-machine  invention  in  America,  particularly  as 
it  would  necessitate  describing  almost  a  score  of  raachijies  that,  one 
after  another,  were  brought  to  the  attention  of  the  public  for  a  time, 
only  to  be  practically  abandoned  when  it  was  i)roved  they  were  unable 
to  fulfill  the  claims  of  their  inventors.  Since  18G7  the  persevering 
effort  to  produce  a  satisfactory  machine  has  luiturallj'  resulted  in  a 
gradual  improvement  in  mechanical  construction  and  substantial  pro- 
gress has  been  made,  though  at  this  date  (189G)  the  question  has  not 
been  practically  settled.  IJamie  nuichines  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes — (1)  delignators,  or  simj)h'  baik  strippers,  and  (2)  decorticators, 
wiiich  not  only  remove  the  bark  but  make  some  ])retense  of  removing 
the  outer  pellicle  or  epidermis  and  the  layer  of  <-ellular  matter  cover- 
ing the  tibcr  layer  proi)er.  The  bark  strii)pers  produce  the  fiber  in  the 
form  of  tiat  ribbons,  only  the  wood  of  the  stalk  being  eliminated,  and 
they  are  usually  constructed  with  some  form  of  knife  or  knives,  with 
which  the  stalks  are  split  before  being  subjected  to  the  action  of  the 
breakers  and  beaters.  The  decorticators  usually  first  crush  the  stalk 
Ity  means  of  metal  rollers,  presenting  the  flattened  mass  to  the  action 
of  the  breaking  or  beating  devices,  and  frequently  there  is  .a  system  of 
mechanisms  for  combing  the  fiber  before  it  is  finally  delivered  to  the 
aprons.  The  product  of  the  delignators  is  always  the  same,  a  flat  ribbon 
of  bark  Avhether  the  dry  or  green  systems  of  decortication  have  been 
employed.  Tiie  product  of  the  decorticators,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
almost  as  variable  as  the  machines  which  turn  out  the  fiber.  In  some 
of  the  poorer  machines  this  i)roduct  is  little  more  than  a  mangled  strip 
of  bark,  neither  a  delignated  ribbon  nor  decorticated  fiber,  but  some- 
thing more  fit  for  the  trash  heap.  In  the  best  of  them,  individual  fila- 
ments, by  the  green  system,  somewhat  resemble  China  gi-ass,  though 
darker  and  less  clean,  while  by  the  dry  system  the  fiber  is  already 
soft  enough  to  spin  into  coarse  cordage  without  further  manipulation. 
Between  these  two  extremes  every  quality  of  ''ribbon"  is  represented. 
Taking  China  grass,  or  commercial  ramie,  as  the  highest  form  of  the 
fiber,  since  it  is  degummed  with  a  loss  in  weight  of  only  15  to  30  per 
cent,  it  will  readily  be  seen  that  the  value  of  the  machine-cleaned  rib- 
b(ms  to  the  manufacturers  must  be  in  exact  ratio  to  the  degree  to  which 
tlie  cleaning  and  freeing  from  gum  have  been  carried. 


HEMP  AND  JUTE  MACHINERY.  349 

We  have  considered  that  these  varied  products,  or  grades  of  prod- 
uct, differ  ouly  in  the  degree  to  whicli  the  eliuiiiiation  of  the  gum  and 
waste  matters  have  been  carried,  and  that  the  proportion  of  gum,  cel- 
lular matter,  and  epidermis  is  the  only  consideration.  In  point  of  fact, 
the  product  of  many  machines  whicli  otherwise  might  be  called  '•'■  good 
tiber"  has  been  so  tilled  with  fragments  of  the  woody  portion  of  the 
stalks,  or  so  "chewed  up''  by  harsh  treatment,  or,  finally,  so  snarled 
and  tangled  in  the  delivery  that  it  has  had  little  value  for  any  purpose. 
Tlie  product  should  be  delivered  straight,  unsnarled  and  untangled, 
free  from  chips,  and  without  breaks,  cuts,  or  bruises,  whether  in  the 
form  of  stripped  bark  or  semicleaned  fiber,  and  its  value  will  be  deter- 
mined by  the  percentage  of  pure  fiber  it  contains.  It  may  be  fairly 
assumed,  then,  that  the  nearer  a  machine  approaches  in  its  product  the 
ramie  of  commerce,  Chinese  hand-cleaned  fiber,  the  higher  the  price  of 
its  product  and  the  more  desirable  the  device  producing  it  as  an  eco- 
nomic agricultural  implement. 

For  an  account  of  the  machines  that  have  been  officially  tested  by 
the  United  States  Government,  see  appendices  to  Report  Xo.  7,  Fiber 
Investigations  Series  of  the  United  States  Dei)artment  of  Agriculture. 
See  also  the  work  of  Felicien  Michotte,  Paris,  in  which  the  principal 
French  and  American  inventions  are  described,  as  well  as  the  chapter 
on  French  machines  in  Report  No.  1,  Fiber  Investigations  Series  of  this 
Department.  Since  the  publication  of  Report  Ko.  7  several  new  Amer- 
ican and  foreign  machines  have  appeared,  but  as  these  have  not  been 
tested  by  the  Governmentsof  France,  Great  Britain,  the  United  States, 
or  other  countries  no  authoritative  statements  can  be  made  concerning 
them. 

HEMP    AND   JUTE    MACHINERY. 

These  machines  may  be  classed  together,  as  a  successful  bast-fiber 
machine  might  with  slight  moditication  be  made  to  extract  either  fiber. 
It  has  been  shown  also,  in  ramie  nmchine  trials,  that  an  umsuccessful 
ramie  machine  may  prove  a  fair  jute  machine,  and  two  machines  tlie 
Department  has  tested  have  worked  on  the  three  fibers,  hemp,  jute, 
and  ramie. 

It  is  claimed  that  nearly  300  patents  have  been  issued  in  the  United 
States  for  machines  for  breaking  hemp,  many  of  which  have  proved 
absolute  failures,  while  none  of  them  filled  the  requirements  of  an 
economically  successful  hemp-cleaning  device,  the  Kentucky  hemp 
grower  of  to-day  relying  upon  the  rude  and  clumsy  five-slatted  hand 
brake  of  his  grandfather's  time,  a  device  similar  in  all  respects  to  that 
used  for  the  same  purpose  at  the  present  day  by  the  hemp  farmers  of 
Brittany.  The  French  brake  is  only  a  slight  advance  upon  that  used 
in  this  country,  being  smaller,  composed  of  both  wood  and  metal,  and 
having  seven  instead  of  five  slats.  While  a  less  clumsy  aftair  than 
the  American  device,  a  French  workman  can  not  clean  with  it  more 


350  U8EFUL    FIBER    PLANT?    OF    THE    WORLD. 

thau  half  the  quantity  of  hemp  in  a  day  that  an  average  Kentucky 
negro  operator  produces  on  the  American  brake.  Thirty  to  35  kilo- 
grams of  fiber  per  day  is  the  limit  of  production  for  a  single  brake  on 
a  Sarthe  farm — equal  to  Go  or  75  pounds  of  fiber.  It  is  more  carefully 
prepared,  however,  teing  twisted  into  small  "streaks"  or  loose  ropes, 
a  number  of  these  making  up  a  bundle  of  several  kilograms  in  weight, 
this  being  the  form  in  which  French  hemp  goes  to  market.  In  Ken- 
tucky breaking  is  an  expensive  operation,  costing  $1  to  $1.25  i)er  hun- 
dred pounds  of  fiber.  The  work  is  performed  in  the  winter  by  negroes, 
and  the  best  workers  will  not  average  more  than  150  pounds  in  a  day. 
A  number  of  i^atented  machines,  possessing  more  or  less  merit,  have 
been  brought  to  public  notice  in  the  past  four  or  five  years,  several  of 
which  have  been  examined  by  the  Oftice  of  Fiber  Investigations.  The 
fact  remains,  however,  that  while  several  of  the  more  recent  inventions 
that  have  been  looked  into  are  "promising,''  the  hemp  growers  of  Ken- 
tucky do  not  consider  that  a  perfectly  satisfactory  machine  is  available 
at  the  present  time.  See  Report  No.  1,  Fiber  Investigations  Series, 
page  73,  and  Report  No.  8,  same  series,  page  18.  See  statements  also 
on  jute  machinery,  same  report,  page  39.  The  Kentucky  hemp  brake 
is  figured  on  page  109  of  this  work. 

LEAF   FIBER   MACHINES. 

Probably  a  greater  degree  of  success  has  been  achieved  in  the  inven- 
tion of  machines  for  extracting  of  the  fiber  from  such  fleshy  leaved 
plants  as  the  Agave,  etc.,  than  for  any  other  classes  of  fiber  plants. 
Since  the  establishment  of  the  Office  of  Fiber  Investigations,  several 
successful  machines  have  been  i)laced  on  the  market  which  will  enable 
a  sisal-hemp  grower  to  market  his  crops  without  recourse  to  the  clumsy 
raspadore  used  so  many  years  in  Yucatan.  It  is  not  necessary  to  enu- 
merate these  machines,  as  they  have  been  fully  described  in  the  special 
reports  of  the  Otfice  of  Fiber  Investigations,  particularly  in  Nos.  3  and  5. 
The  makers  of  some  of  the  best  of  the  American  machines  in  this  class 
have,  since  those  reports  were  published,  constructed  other  machines 
that  are  said  to  clean  the  leaves  of  such  i>lants  as  the  pineapple,  yucca, 
etc.  A  good  machine  for  extracting  the  fiber  from  the  husk  of  the 
cocoanut  is  included  in  the  category. 

COTTON   MACHINERY. 

The  Department  has  made  no  special  study  of  the  various  gins, 
presses,  etc.,  for  baling  the  crops  that  are  available.  Brief  statements 
are  made  under  the  title  Gossypium,  in  the  body  of  this  work,  and  ref- 
erence is  also  made  to  The  Cotton  Plant  recently  published  by  the 
Department  of  Agriculture.  See  also  Spoil's  Encyclopedia,  noted  in 
list  of  authorities. 

Many  other  forms  of  fiber  machinery  have  been  devised  for  employ- 
ment in  the  Old  World;  they  liave  not  been  studied  by  the  Department, 


COTTON    MACHINERY.  351 

as  the  fibers  are  not  utilized  in  tliis  country.  Some  of  tliem  are 
described  in  tlie  bulletins  of  the  Koyal  (lardens,  Kew,  and  in  Spon's 
Encyclopiedia,  while  many  are  noted  in  special  reports  and  bulletins 
that  are  not  readily  available  to  the  general  public,  so  that  special  ref- 
erence will  not  be  made  to  them.  The  Department  will  always  be  glad 
to  answer  any  questions  regarding  this  phase  of  the  fiber  subject,  as 
far  as  possible,  upon  application  for  information  by  letter,  and  will  feel 
under  obligations  to  correspondents  who  will  send  accounts  of  new 
machines,  confidentially  or  otherwise. 


APPENDIX    B. 


ON  THE  IDENTIFICATION  OF  FIBERS. 

By  William  JI.  .Sea.max,  M.  I). 

It  is  frtMiueutly  desirable  to  be  able  to  ascertain  tlie  nature  of  fibers 
composing'  textile  goods,  to  detect  mixtures,  or  for  some  other  reason. 
The  fibers  employed  in  the  commercial  industries  naturally  separate 
tliemselves  into  tliree  great  classes,  of  wliicli  two,  silk  and  wool,  are 
derived  from  the  animal  kingdom,  while  the  vegetable  kingdom  fur- 
nishes an  immense  variety,  as  the  pages  of  this  work  testify. 

The  means  by  which  fibers  may  be  identified  are  also  grouped  under 
two  heads — chemical  and  microscopical.  For  many  purposes,  the 
methods  are  combined  together,  the  chemical  reactions  being  carried 
out  and  studied  on  the  stage  of  the  microscope.  We  will  first  indicate 
some  of  the  more  obvious  reactions  by  which  these  classes  of  fibers  may 
be  recognized,  and  then  discuss  more  particularly  the  microscopical 
characters  of  the  vegetable  fibers  by  which  the}'  may  be  distinguished 
from  each  other. 

As  all  animal  fibers  contain  nitrogen,  which  on  burning  evolves 
ammonia,  recognizable  by  its  smell,  a  strong  smell  from  a  burning  fiber 
not  saturated  with  any  nitrogenous  substance  clearly  reveals  its  animal 
origin,  because  vegetable  fibers  contain  so  little  nitrogen  that  its  pres- 
ence is  not  easily  made  out  and  they  give  no  ammoniacal  odor  on 
combustion.  The  vegetable  fibers  also  do  not  leave  any  residue,  if  well 
burned,  while  the  animal  fibers  leave  a  crispy  coal. 

Both  silk  and  wool  are  soluble  in  strong  hydrochloric  acid,  the  solu- 
tion being  hastened  by  heat,  but  in  dilute  acid  silk  is  soluble  and  wool 
is  not.  Vegetable  fibers  in  the  same  reagent  are  disintegrated  but  not 
dissolved.  Numerous  processes  have  been  invented  for  separating 
vegetable  fibers,  burs,  etc.,  from  wool,  in  order  to  clean  the  wool  from 
seeds  and  other  foreign  vegetable  matters  that  would  be  injurious  to  its 
manufacture,  and  also  to  permit  the  reuse  of  woolen  rags,  et-c.,  which 
have  cotton  sewing  threads  in  them  or  that  have  been  made  partially  of 
cotton.  These  processes  depend  usually  upon  the  destruction  of  the 
vegetable  matter  by  acting  on  the  mass  with  chlorin,  or  some  compound 
352 


IDENTIFICATION    OF    FIBERS.  353 

of  clilorin,  or  witli  dilute  acids,  siudi  as  liydrocbloiic  or  sulphuric,  of 
suitable  streugtb.  By  the  action  of  these  reagents  the  vegetable  mat- 
ter is  rendered  brittle  so  as  to  easily  break  in  pieces  like  dust  when  the 
mixed  mass  is  subje(;ted  to  the  action  of  a  shaking  machine  known  as 
a  willow,  and  this  dust  is  blown  away,  leaving  the  wool  substantially 
intact.  Mungo  and  shoddy  are  thus  obtained.  AVhen  hydrochloric 
acid  has  been  used  as  the  disintegrating  agent,  if  after  its  action  the 
fiber  is  steamed,  the  silk,  if  any  is  present,  will  also  be  partially  dis- 
solved so  that  it  can  be  removed  and  a  i)ure  wool  liber  obtained. 

lu  strong,  cold  sulphuric  acid  silk  quickly  turns  yellow  and  dissolves; 
cotton  disintegrates  slowly  without  color;  Hax  and  hemp  make  a  black 
mixture,  and  wool  is  scarcely  affected.  Both  silk  and  wool  turn  yellow 
and  are  soluble  in  nitric  acid,  the  first  more  speedily,  while  vegetable 
libers  are  slightly  affected.  Vegetalffe  fibers  are  composed  almost  wholly 
of  cellulose,  whi(;h  dissolves  readily  in  Schweitzer's  reagent,  which  is  a 
solution  of  copper  oxid  in  ammonia.  Vegetable  fibers  are  also  callable 
of  being  nitrated  in  different  degrees  by  the  action  of  a  mixtnre  of  sul- 
l)huric  and  nitric  acids,  forming  soluble  cotton,  gun  cotton,  etc.,  impor- 
tant products  in  the  manufacture  of  photographic  collodion,  celluloid, 
and  explosives." 

Fibers  may  be  presented  for  examination  in  the  form  of  raw  material 
or  as  manufactured  goods.  In  the  first  case  it  often  happens  that  some 
preliminary  treatment  is  required  to  remove  the  incrasting  or  coating 
material  which  would  otherwise  jjrevent  the  direct  action  of  chemical 
reagents  ux)on  the  fiber.  Animal  fibers  are  covered  with  oil;  cotton  with 
a  vegetable  fat,  iind  bast  fibers,  like  flax  and  hemp,  have  more  or  less 
resinous  cementing  matter  attached  to  them.  This  will  usually  be 
removed  by  a  preliminary  soaking  in  ether  or  benzine,  and,  if  desirable, 
the  weight  of  such  adventitious  matter  can  be  determined  by  the  dif- 
ference in  the  weight  of  the  material  before  and  after  treatment.  In 
the  case  of  cotton  a  i)reliminary  weak  alkaline  bath  is  often  used. 

If  the  material  is  in  a  manufactured  state,  as  spun  or  woven,  the 
warp  and  weft  should  be  carefully  separated,  as  they  often  consist  of 
different  fibers,  and  the  threads  should  be  untwisted  so  as  to  give  the 
reagents  free  access  to  the  entire  surface  of  the  fibers.  They  may  then 
l)e  examined  according  to  the  tables  on  page  354,  adapted  from  Dam- 
mer's  '-Illustriertes  Lexicon  der  Verfalschuugen." 

'  For  further  information  on  these  subjects,  con.sult  Allen's  Commercial  Analysis, 
Vol.  II. 

IL'L'47— ^■o.  0 L'3 


354 


USEFUL    FIBER    PLANT.S    OF    THE    WORLD. 


Taijle  a. — For  the  examiuatiun  ofjihcrs,  nhowiii;/  Ihtirhtliarior  tvlicii  Ircatcd  witli  (iifiieoiis 
solutions  of  the  reagents  s})ecijied. 


Caustic 

alkali  as 

caustic 

soda. 


En t inly  _ 
solitide. 


Zinc  clilorid. 


Coiiipletelvsol 

iil)le. 
railiall.v 

uble. 


Lciid  acetate. 


Silk. 


IMixid  silk  iiiiil 

Wliol. 


Alkali  solution    

(Iocs  not  lilackcn. 

The   soliil.lc    |H)r-  j 

tion  (1  o  cs  not 
lilackcn.  tliciu- 
sohihlo  does. 

Blackens "Wool. 

A  ]iart  blackens  . .    Tlie  part   insolnlile  in    zinc  chlorid  Ujj^,.,]    sill, 
partly  ilissolvcs  ill  ciin.stic  potash  ;   |  ,     J^t  ^   V 

the   icniaiiiilcr    is  soluble    :ii    cii-   (     .',"'' 
piaiiiiiioniiiiii.  I 

Docs  not  blacken  .    On  tri'atiiient  with  picric  acid,  pai-t   \^-.-,y.  .,,,,1  ,  ,,|  t,,i] 
colors  yellow,  p.irt  rciiiaiiis  wliitc.  J'      ^' 
On  treatment  with  nitric  aiid.  jiarl   (Mixed   tl:i\  and 

turns  yellow,  part  reiii;iiiis  white.    (     cotton. 
Chlorin,  water,  oraiiiiiioni.icidorsthe  fMew    Ze;ilaiid 
libers  red  brown,  iiitrii- acid  red.      \     llax. 
Alcoh(dic   liuh-  (  ■) 

sin(l-JO) -rives  Jr    and     II-.fl^f>4  l|i,.,„,, 
a  permanent)  };ive  yellow.      (  '' 

color.  I  ■  J 

Potash   siduhlo  (I    and     n2S()4l,,., 
dyes  yellow.       t  {?ive  blue.  J      '  '  ' 

Pot.isli  does  not 

c<ilor  and  fiich    ) Cotton 

sin  washes  out 


It  will  be  seen  that  the  first  step  is  to  treat  with  caustic  alkali,  10 
to  20  per  cent,  whereby  animal  fiber  is  dissolved,  and  vci;etable  fiber 
not.  If,  now.  lead  acetate  be  added  to  the  mi.xtnre  it  darkens  imme- 
diately from  the  formation  of  lead  sulphid  if  wool  is  present.  Or,  if  silk 
be  suspected,  warm  in  strong  sulphuric  acid,  when  the  silk  will  darken 
rapidly  and  the  wool  more  slowly.  A  solution  of  basic  zinc  chlorid 
may  be  made  by  taking  a  solution  of  1.70  sp.  gr.  and  dissolving  therein 
an  excess  of  zinc  oxid.  In  this  fluid  silk  dissolves  readily  in  the  cold, 
but  wool  a'.id  vegetable  fibers  remain  unaffected.  By  heating  a  Aveighed 
l)ortion  of  the  material  in  this  bath  for  five  minutes,  then  drying  and 
weighing,  the  amount  of  silk  is  determined  by  loss.  On  heating  the 
remainder  in  a  10  per  cent  solution  of  caustic  soda,  drying  and  weigh- 
ing as  before,  the  amount  of  wool  is  found;  the  rest  is  vegetable  fiber. 
The  more  common  vegetable  fibers  may  be  distinguished  from  each 
other  by  means  of  the  following  table: 


'J'.\i;lk  B. — Showiny  the  reactions  of  thr  more  important  vigetahle  fibers. 


Fiber. 

lodin  and  zinc 
chlorid. 

lodin  and  sul- 
phuric acid. 

Cupranimo- 
nium. 

Aniliu  sulpliate. 

Phloroglucin. 

Cotton 

Violet 

do 

do 

]?rown  yellow  .. 
Dull  violet 

Blue 

Bine  solution. 
do 

Flax 

do 

Hemp 

Jute 

do 

do 

Bale  yellow 

Golden  yellow 

do 

Deep  red. 

Kamie 

Dull  blue    . 

do  . 

Yellow 

Yellowish 

do 

Ilri-ht  yelhiw  .... 

Red. 

New    Zealand 

flax. 
Aloe 

Coi'oa 

Golden  yellow  . . 
Yellow  to  brown 
do 

Green  blue  . . . 
Yellow 

Bluish 

Swells    uji 
Idnish. 



Palo  red. 
Pink. 

Purplish. 

IDENTIFICATION    OF    FIBERS.  3I')5 

The  solutiou  of  iodiii  in  zinc.  (;lilori(l  is  prc[>;irt'(l  by  taking  100  i)arts 
of  zinc  cliloiid  solution  of  1.8  sp.  <>t.,  adding  lU  jmrts  of  water,  andi6 
parts  of  potassium  iodid,  then  add  iodin  till  the  vapors  thereof  begin 
to  form.     The  brown  li([uid  slionld  be  kejtt  protected  froni  light. 

The  s(dution  of  cupramnmnium  is  made  by  adding  sodium  carbonate 
to  a  solution  of  co])[)er  sulphate,  by  which  a  mixture  of  copper  hydrate 
and  carbonate  is  formed;  this  is  well  washed  and  treated  with  just 
sufficient  ammonia  of  0.J>1  sp.  gr.  to  dissolve  it.  It  should  be  Avell 
shaken,  liltered,  and  is  then  ready  for  use.  Anilin  sulphate  in  1  per 
cent  solution  dyes  woody  fiber  cells  pale  to  deep  yellow  according  to 
the  amount  of  woody  deposit. 

The  phloroglucin  reagent  reijuires  two  li(iuids  which  are  kept  sep- 
arate, first  a  5  per  cent  solution  of  phloroglucin  in  95  per  cent  alcohol, 
and  sec(md  strong  hydrochloric  acid.  Apply  to  the  section  under 
examination  first  a  drop  or  two  of  phloroglucin  solution,  and  then  in 
like  manner  the  hydrochloric  acid.  Lignified  cells  will  be  stained  red, 
those  not  lignified  will  remain  colorless.  This  reagent  is  mucli  used 
+br  determining  the  presence  of  wood  pulp  in  i)aper  claiming  to  be 
made  of  rags.  A  5  per  cent  solution  of  anilin  chlorid  may  be  substi- 
tuted for  the  phloroglucin  and  applied  in  the  same  way,  but  the  liguin 
will  be  stained  yellow  instead  of  red. 

For  the  application  of  iodiii  and  suli)huric  acid,  a  little  iodin  is  dis- 
sohed  in  alcohol,  and  diluted  with  water  till  a  j)ale  wine-colored  liquid 
is  obtained.  The  sulphuric  acid  used  should  be  diluted  with  two  parts 
of  water,  and  the  sample  treated  with  the  reagents  alternately  till  the 
fnll  effect  is  proiluced.  Fuchsin  is  employe<l  in  a  o  ])er  cent  alcoholic 
solution.  Lead  acetate  in  ,")  per  cent  water  solution.  Picric  acid,  a 
saturated  water  solution. 

Vegetable  fibers  are  composed  of  long  (;ells,  which  may  be  attached 
in  a  single  row,  end  to  end  as  in  cotton,  or,  in  bast  fibers  like  linen  and 
hemp  they  are  spindle  sliaped  with  very  tapering  ends,  which  lie  side 
by  side  and  are  united  to  each  other  by  a  kind  of  cementing  or  inter- 
cellular substance.  Something  of  the  strength  of  the  fiber  depends  on 
the  strength  and  the  resistance  which  this  cement  offers  to  the  action 
of  ordinary  solvents,  like  water  and  soap;  if  it  dissolves  readily,  as  in 
the  case  of  jute,  goods  made  of  such  a  fiber  will  not  stand  washing.  In 
any  case  the  fibers  which  are  to  be  examined  should  be  separated  into 
their  ultinmte  cells  by  soaking  in  alkali,  then  rubbing  between  the 
fingers  or  teasing  out  with  needles,  or  recourse  must  sometimes  be  had 
to  boiling  in  a  10  per  cent  soda  lye  or  labarraque  solution,  and  fraying 
in  a  mortar. 

When  the  ultimate  cells  are  obtained,  they  should  be  stretched  on  a 
slide  moistened  with  a  little  glycerol  for  microscopical  examination. 
The  glj  cerol  will  prevent  any  tendency  to  crisp  or  curl  when  they  are 
stretched  out,  and  a  cover  glass  laid  on,  and  the  whole  slide  is  placed 
upon  ai  micrometer  scale  to  measure  the  length.  Transparent  glass 
scales  may  now  be  obtained,  wiiich  are  very  convenient  for  this  work. 


356  USEFUL    FIBER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

After  flndiug  the  length,  sections  of  the  fibers  must  be  made  to  deter- 
mine the  diameter  of  the  cells.  For  this  purpose  the  writer  has  some- 
times rolled  a  little  bundle  of  the  fibers  in  a  piece  of  sheet  wax  made 
warm  enough  to  be  pliable.  The  wax  is  allowed  to  cool,  and  the  sec- 
tions cut  in  any  section  cutter,  of  which  there  are  now  a  great  many 
forms  in  use  by  microscopists.  If  the  fibers  are  hard,  the  wax  is  not 
suflicientlj^  resistant,  and  an  embedding  mass  must  be  used  that  may 
be  prepared  by  dissolving  70  grams  of  clean  gum  arabic  in  an  equal 
weight  of  distilled  water.  Then  digest  4  grams  isinglass  in  10  grams 
cold  water  till  swollen,  then  heat  to  complete  solution. 

Strain  one-half  through  a  piece  of  fine  muslin  and  mix  with  the  solu- 
tion of  gum  arabic,  throwing  the  rest  away,  and  add  10  or  l!3  cubic 
centimeters  of  glycerol,  warm  and  mix  thoroughly,  and  in  each  bottle 
jjut  a  small  ])iece  of  camphor.  It  is  best  to  put  it  up  in  small  bottles, 
as  it  solidifies  on  cooling.  When  it  is  to  bo  used,  warm  the  bottle,  and 
taking  a  little  bundle  of  the  fibers,  about  the  size  of  a  slate  pencil,  tie 
a  thread  around  one  end  and  saturating  the  bundle  with  the  glue, 
stroke  the  fibers  till  they  are  straight  and  i)arallel,  then  hang  the  bun- 
dle up  to  dry  for  about  twelve  hours,  when  it  will  be  hard  enough  to 
cut.  The  slices  are  placed  on  the  slide,  and  wet  with  iodin  solution, 
which  is  in  turn  absorbed  by  strips  of  blotting  paper  till  all  the  glue  is 
dissolved  and  removed.  When  the  .sections  are  made  in  wax,  benzine 
or  turpentine  may  be  used  for  this  removal,  and  the  iodin  applied  sub- 
sequently. When  the  sections  are  clean,  a  dro^)  of  the  dilute  sul[)huric 
acid  is  put  on  tliem,  the  cover  glass  is  placed  in  position,  and  they  are 
ready  for  examination  on  the  stage  of  the  microscope.  Or  the  cover 
glass  may  be  i)ut  on  before  the  addition  of  the  sulidiuric  acid,  and  the 
acid  then  placed  on  the  slide  at  the  edge  of  the  cover  glass,  when  it 
will  slowly  creep  under,  and  its  progressive  action  can  be  watched  as 
it  penetrates  the  sections.  Pure  (cellulose  takes  a  blue  color,  lignin  a 
yellow,  and  intermediate  tints  will  be  produced  in  proportion  as  the 
cells  are  more  or  less  lignified.  When  the  saturation  is  complete,  the 
outline  of  the  sections  will  be  sharply  made  out,  and  their  diameter, 
shape  of  outline,  and  character  of  the  interior  canal  should  be  iu)ted. 
As  the  relative  proportion  of  lignin  and  cellulose  differs  much  in  the 
cells  of  different  plants,  but  is  tolerably  constant  for  the  same  species, 
it  is  i)0ssible  to  classify  fibers  according  to  their  reactions,  which  taken 
in  connection  with  the  size  of  their  ultimate  fiber  cells,  ofler  us  the 
most  certain  means  of  identification,  and  these  characters  will  be  found 
synoptically  arranged  in  the  table  following.  By  a  careful  use  of  strips 
of  blotting  paper  to  take  up  any  excess  of  reagents,  all  injury  to  the 
microscope  may  be  avoided  and  much  better  results  obtained  than  by  a 
sloppy,  careless  method  of  work.  For  measuring  the  diameter  of  the 
cells  a  Jackson  eyepiece  micrometer  is  to  l)e  ])referred.  The  gross 
appearance  of  the  fibers  should  be  noted  in  most  cases.  If  the  ends 
are  frayed  and  worn  it  indicates  shoddy  in  wool  and  paper  stock  in 
cotton.     In  the  United  States,  where  iiuk-Ii  paj)er  stock  is  of  wood, 


IDENTIFICATION    OF    FIBERS. 


357 


diderent  kiiid.s  of  wood  iiie  employed  not  iiientioued  in  the  following' 
table,  such  as  poplar,  which  in  some  parts  of  the  country  is  the  common 
name  of  species  of  Fopulus,  but  in  Xew  York  and  elsewhere  is  often 
api)lied  to  the  Liriodendron  tuli])i/h-a,  also  known  as  whitewood,  while 
the  THi<(  iimcrivdna  goes  under  the  name  of  basswood.  As  all  woody 
libers  are  more  or  less  lignified,  they  give  the  yellow  reactions  of  the 
Dicotyledons  with  the  linden  and  willow  as  in  the  table  following. 

The  reaction  between  iodni  and  sulphuric  acid  is  sometimes  a  little 
slow  and  the  color  is  temporary,  only  lasting*  a  few  hours.  Bent  or 
creased  libers  color  deeply  in  the  flexures,  and  stri;e,  either  longitudi- 
nal or  radial  in  sections,  will  show  more  plainly  as  the  coloration  pro- 
gresses. In  many  of  the  coarser  fibers  particularly,  pieces  of  ])aren- 
chyma  will  be  seen  that  always  color  yellow,  and  may  readily  be  known 
by  their  irregular  shape. 

]\lost  of  the  fiber  cells  used  in  the  textile  industries,  such  as  fiax  and 
hemp,  are  parts  of  the  inner  layer  or  bark  of  Dicotyledonous  plants 
often  known  as  bast  cells. 

In  Monocotyledons  the  fiber  cells  are  often  scattered  irregularly 
through  the  stem,  and  are  white,  coarse,  light,  and  often  brittle.  (See 
Study  of  Fibers,  in  the  Introduction.)  There  are,  however,  many  excep- 
tions to  the  latter  statement,  especially  auioug  the  palms,  which  are 
Monocotyledons.  The  blue  reaction  in  this  class  is  not  so  definite  as  in 
the  other  classes,  quite  a  jyroportion  of  the  cells  of  alfa  or  esparto  turning 
yellow,  there  being  apparently  two  kinds  of  cells  in  this  plant,  which 
are  not  mixed  indiscriminately  in  the  stem,  but  form  separate  layers, 
each  of  which  maintains  its  characteristic  reaction,  but  becomes  inter- 
mixed in  processes  of  manufacture.  The  following  table  is  a  summary 
of  the  distinguishing  characters  of  the  principal  vegetable  fibers.  The 
mean  length  and  diameter  are  derived  from  a  comparison  of  many 
measurements,  and  hence  do  not  in  all  cases  represent  the  mean  of  the 
extremes  given 

Taulk  C. — Siinopiical  tulile  for  the  (leterminatioii  of  fillers  of  regetahlr  origin. 

[All  measures  in  iiiillinietcrs.     The  reactions  are  understood  to  be  with  iodiu  and 

anlpliuric  acid.] 

DICOTVLKDONS  GIVING  BLUE  KEACTION. 


Hotaiiical  name. 

Length  of  fiber 
cells. 

Diameter  of 
fiber  cells. 

Coiiiuioii  name. 

(O 

o 

m 

a 
o 
i-I 

_2 

a 

OS 

Remarks. 

Flax 

Hfiiip 

Linnm  naitatis.iimnra... 

('iiiiiialiis  sati\  a 

Hiiiimliis  liiimln.s 

rrti(  a  8)1 

r.oelniifria  nivea 

Uriiii.s.si>nitiai>apyrifei-a 
Ciotalaria  jiincea 

Cytiaiia  scoparin.s 

Spartiiim  jiinceum 

Mc-lilotnsalba 

4 
5 
4 
4 

fill 
li 
4 

5 
10 

10 

27 

120 

15 

7.8 

6 

Id 

111 

fifi 
55 
19 
55 
200 
25 
12 

9 
10 

18 
411 

0.150 
.016 
.012 
.02 
.05 
.  025 

0.022 
.u22 
.016 
.05 
.08 
.030 

0.  037 
.  050 
.018 
.07 

.035 

Cavity  tiue,  yellow  linn. 

Ho)) 

Nettle 

Chiiia  gra.ss 

Paiiermullit'Try. 
Sumi 

Caual    scarcely    api)ar- 

ent. 
Yellow  envelope. 

Sinniisli  liiiiiiiu   . 
Melilut 

Colt.pii    

558 


USEFUL  FIBER  PLANTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


Tahi.K  ('. — Sytioptical   tahJe  for  Ihe  <letenniiniiioii  <>/  fibers  of  rff/etahir  orujin — (Jdiil.'il. 
DICOTYLEDONS  GIVING  A  YELLOW  REACTION. 


Leiij{th  of  fiber 

Diameter  of 

Biitaiiical  iiaini'. 

celLs. 

liber  cells. 

l;.iiiail> 

CoiiiiiKin  iiauie. 

o 
m 

i 
•a 

3 

6 

1 
0. 014 

0.  021 

m 
bl) 

s. 

Hibiscus 

Hibiscus  ST» -.  - 

2 

5 

0. 0:53 

Coloriimre  in 

ti-n-scou 

Hlll'lace. 

Linden  

Tilia  ap 

1.25 

2 

5 

.014 

.niG 

.  020 

Canal  very  n 

!ial".. 

.Jute 

Corchoni.s,  sp 

L5 

2 

5 

.  020 

.020 

.025 

Stiff;   canal 

jtronii- 

Liictibark 

Lagettii  liiituaria 

:< 

5 

6 

.01 

.015 

.02 

neut. 

Willow 

Salixalba 

3 

3 

.017 

.022 

.030 

' 

MONOCOTYLKDONS  (;iVIN(r  A  r.H'K  KK.VCTIOX. 


Esparfo I  LysP"'"  spartiiin. 

Spaui.sh  grass (  Stip;i  tenacissinia. 

Pineapple !  Ananas  sativa 


1.3 

2.5 

4.5 

.012 

.ok; 

.020 

0.5 

1.5 

3.5 

.007 

.  0125 

.018 

Curly;  cavity  small. 

3 

5 

9 

.004 

.000 

.008 

Cavity    line:  colora- 
tion sliglit. 

MONOCOTYLEDONS  cniXc;   \   YKLLoW    UEACTION. 


New  Zealanil  flax. .  Pliorinium  tenax 

Ailam's  needle Yncca  sp 

Bow.string  hemp, ..'  San.se vieri a  sp 

Centura  iilant( Pita)  AK;iveaniericiina 

Manila  li<  in ]) Mnsa  tex tills 

Palnu-tt<i.:ind]ialnis  Chanutrops  liiiiiiilis,  etc. 
in  Keneral. 


0 
4 

3 

2.5 

U 


.01 

.015 

.02 

.01 

.015 

.02 

.015 

.02 

.026 

.020 

.024 

.032 

.010 

.024 

.032 

Coloration  intense. 


It  is  wortli  iiotiufi'  tliat  iutilicial  silk,  made  l)y  Cliaidoniiet  and  others, 
now  often  torins  a  part  of  some  kinds  of  silk  j^oods.     A  conipany  is  l)einf>' 
formed  in  tliis  eonntry  to  manufacture  artificial  silk  under  the  Cliardon- 
iiet  patents,  the  mill  to  he  erected  at  Paterson,  X.  .1.     (See  under  Arti 
ficial  silk  ill  this  work.) 

Ill  closiiij;.  1  may  refer  to  a  few  works  containiii<;-  descriptiotis  of  the 
fibers  commonly  em])loy('d  in  commeri'ial  industries.  Very  few  books 
have  been  piiblislnMl  relatinjj;-  exclusively  to  libers,  and  especially  in 
this  country.  In  most  books  on  dyeing,  some  descriptiou  of  the  mate- 
rials empioye«l  is  prefixed,  usually  of  a  very  superficial  character;  but 
there  are  no  special  tVmerican  i)ublicatioiis  on  the  techn()lo<;y  of  fiber 
work.  This  list  must  be  understood  as  including  only  the  more  impor- 
tant pul)licatioiis  on  this  subject.  See  in  list  of  authorities  William 
Crookes,  Kneclit  liawson  and  Loewenthal,  V»''tillart,  Thomas  Christy, 
Leo  Viiinou,  F.  II.  P.owman,  Julius  Sachs,  Gritlin  and  Little,  Edson 
S.  Bastiii,  and  Cross  and  Bevan.  Vetillart's  work  is  the  most  thorough 
that  has  been  published,  uj)  to  the  present  time,  as  regards  the  identi- 
fication of  fibers  by  means  of  microchemical  reactions.  Some  of  the 
matter,  together  with  information  on  a  large  number  of  new  fibers,  is 
incorporated  in  the  work  by  Thoin;is  Christy.  The  Text-Book  of 
Botany  by  Julius  Sachs  is  one  of  the  highest  authorities  on  the 
structure  of  i)lants. 


APPENDIX   C. 


DESCRIPTION  AND  HISTORY  OF  LACE. 

r>y  ])r.  Thomas  Wilson. 

Lace  is  an  onianiciital  open  work  labri(;  made  witli  tlireads  by  sew- 
ing, knottini;',  or  twistiiiy.  It  is  not  a  textile,  is  not  woven,  is  not 
embroidery.  Its  ]»rincipal  difference  from  these,  wlierein  consists  its 
pecnliarity,  is  tliat  it  is  made  niesli  or  loop  at  a  time,  each  one  being 
complete  in  itselt  and  not  made  on  any  previonsly  jtrepared  fonnda- 
tion,  as  in  weaving  or  embroidery.  There  are  many  fabrics  which  liave 
intimate  relation  with  lace  and  are  called  by  that  name  wherein  there 
may  be  a  mixture  of  both  weaving  and  embroidery.  There  are  other 
fabrics  which,  made  purely  by  lace  making  process,  still  are  not  lace 
because  of  a  failure  of  their  ornamental  charactei".  It  is  only  by  employ- 
ing the  word  "ornament"  in  the  definition  that  one  can  exclude  the  fine 
sardine  nets  in  use  on  the  western  coast  of  France.  They  are  netted  as 
is  lace;  they  are  not  made  by  any  previously  prepared  foundation;  they 
are  of  fine  linen  thread,  but  they  are  utilitarian  and  are  not  ornamental, 
and  so  are  not  lace. 

The  making  and  use  of  thread  and  the  art  of  weaving  are  of  great  age, 
being  well  known  in  prehistoric  times  in  the  Neolithic  and  Bronze  ages. 
Examples  of  both  have  been  found  in  the  Neolithic  stations  of  the  Lake 
Dwellers  of  Switzerland  and  Italy.  The  more  advanced  arts  of  sewing, 
weaving,  an<l  embroidery  were  in  a  high  state  of  development  at  the 
beginning  of  all  historic  periods  in  almost  every  known  country.  The 
Bible  is  full  of  descriptions  of  objects  of  high  art  in  these  regards. 
Modern  discoveries  in  Egypt  and  Assyria  carry  these  arts  much  further 
into  antiquity.  There  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  all  or  most  of  these 
arts  antedated  the  culture  manifested  by  written  characters  and  by  the 
higher  orders  of  architecture. 

Lace  is,  however,  entirely  a  modern  product.  There  were  in  early 
times,  to  be  sure,  knitted  fabrics,  and  some  of  them  may  have  been 
darned  or  embroidered  in  such  way  as  to  produce  a  fabric  which  now 
passes  as  antique  lace;  but  the  art  of  lace  nuiking,  according  to  the 
foregoing  definition,  by  sewing  with  the  needle  as  in  the  manufacture 
of  point  lace,  or  by  twisting  as  in  the  manufacture  of  bobbin  lace,  is 
not  pretended  by  anyone  to  have  existed  earlier  than  the  last  half  of  the 

359 


360  USEFUL    FUiER    PLANTS    OF    THE    WORLD. 

fifteeiitli  century,  and  it  is  extremely  doubtful  if  any  particular  speci- 
men can  be  identified  as  having  been  made  i)rior  to  the  middle  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  at  uhich  time  lace  hrst  api)eared  as  a  perfected  fabric. 
The  country  entitled  to  the  honor  of  the  invention  of  lace  making  is 
unknown.  It  has  been  claimed  by  Italy,  Belgium,  France,  and  CJer- 
many,  with  a  considerable  show  of  evidence  in  favor  of  each. 

It  is  remarkable  that  lace  making  should  have  sprung  uj)  or  been 
invented  at  about  the  same  period  of  time  l)y  two  entirely  distinct  pnx;- 
esses  without  relationship  or  evolution  between  them,  and  that  the 
people  of  the  countries  wherein  either  of  the  inventions  was  made 
were  not  only  uidvnown  to  each  other,  but  apparently  neither  had  any 
knowledge  of  the  process  of  lace  nuiking  invent<'d  or  employed  in  the 
other  country.  One  of  these  processes  is  by  the  employment  of  the 
needle  and  a  single  thread,  wherein  the  work  was  perfected  mesh  by 
mesh,  each  mesh  being  completed  as  the  work  progressed.  The  other 
process  was  by  the  use  of  many  threads  at  once,  each  one  attached  to 
bobbins  for  the  purpose  only  of  separating  them,  the  meshes  being 
made  by  twisting  the  threads  a  greater  or  less  number  of  times.  When 
each  mesh  is  only  partially  completed,  the  thread  is  carried  on  to  the 
next,  and  so  on  from  side  to  side  the  entire  width  of  the  fabric.  While 
the  countries  in  which  these  processes  were  invented  are  unknown,  the 
evidence  points  to  Venice  as  the  seat  of  the  former  and  to  Belgium  as 
the  seat  of  the  latter. 

By  these  two  totally  distinct  processes  fabrics  are  produced  so  nearly 
alike  as  often  to  require  an  expert  to  distinguish  the  difference,  which, 
though  many  times  easily  determined,  yet  not  infrequently  requires 
the  aid  of  an  expert. 

During  the  first  two  centuries  of  lace  making  it  may  be  assumed  that 
it  was  always  made  with  linen  thread,  but  during  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury the  im[»rovements  in  making  cotton  thread  have  been  so  extensive 
that  the  latter  fiber  has  been  considerably  employed.  Practically  all 
machine-made  lace  is  of  cotton  fiber.  Lace  making  has  in  later  days 
been  carried  by  the  principal  I'kiropean  nations  into  their  colonies,  and 
lace  is  thus  oftentimes  made  by  i^eoples  who  are  barbarous,  or  at  best 
not  more  than  half  civilized.  The  native  population  of  many  of  the 
South  American  states  carry  on  lace  making,  which  was  taught  them 
in  early  times  by  pioneer  jnissionaries,  and  the  art  has  become  special- 
ized and  localized,  and  is  taught  and  continued  from  generation  to  gen- 
eration, and  now  furnishes  a  staple  industry.  Under  the  tuition  of  the 
French  the  natives  of  Madagascar  make  a  fair  representation  of  antique 
lace  which,  however,  unlike  the  South  American,  is  not  for  their  own 
use,  is  not  used  by  them,  but  is  intended  as  a  source  of  revenue  and  is 
for  sale  or  export. 

Eegarding  Nanduty  {Nanduti)  lace,  William  Eleroy  Curtis  writes  me 
that  the  material  used  is  the  j>/to  hber,  and  that  it  is  the  same  used  by 
the  people  of  Ecuador  and  northern  Peru  for  the  very  tine  Panama 


DESCRIPTION    AND    HISTORY    OF    LACE.  361 

hats,  which  are  all  made  on  the  west  coast  of  South  America  between 
Buenaventura  and  Callao.  "They  are  called  Panama  hats  because 
Panama  is  the  market  of  distribution." 

In  "The Capitals  of  Spanish  America,"  by  Mr.  Curtis,  who  is  recog- 
nized as  the  highest  authority  upon  all  subjects  referred  to  therein, 
statements  are  made  on  page  G38,  as  follows : 

The  men  are  very  skillful  in  the  use  of  tools  and  in  the  manufacture  of  gold  and 
silver  ornaments,  and  the  women  make  a  very  tine  lace  which  is  called  Nauduty. 
The  lace-making  art  was  taught  the  women  hy  the  Spanish  nuns.  They  do  not  use 
cotton  thread,  but  the  very  fine  fibers  of  a  native  tree,  which  arc  as  soft  and  lustrous 
as  silk.  Some  of  their  designs  are  very  beautiful,  and  the  fabric  is  indestructible. 
Lopez  had  his  chamber  walls  hung  with  this  lace,  on  a  background  of  crimson  satin, 
and  the  pattern  was  an  imitation  of  the  finest  cobweb.  It  is  said  to  have  required  the 
work  of  200  women  for  several  years  to  cover  the  walls,  and  that  every  one  of  those 
women  was  a  discarded  mistress  of  the  despot.  The  lace  is  fastened  to  the  wall  by 
clamps  of  solid  gold  of  the  most  unique  workmanship.  There  are  400  of  the  clamps, 
each  worth  from  $12  to  $15." 

In  regard  to  the  above  reference  to  Panama  hats,  it  should  be  noted 
that  the  true  Panama  hats  are  made  from  the  sj)lit  leaves  of  Carlndovica 
palmata.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  name  of  the  botanical  sjiecies 
of  plant  used  in  the  manufacture  of  this  lace  could  not  be  given,  as  the 
mime  pita  is  used  tor  so  many  different  fibers.  [See  Pit<(  in  catalogue, 
Ed,]  The  Nanduty  lace  differs  from  some  other  laces  in  being  made  in 
small  squares  and  joined  together. 

In  addition  to  the  fibers  above  mentioned  the  writer  possesses  some 
specimens  of  lace  made  of  the  fiber  of  the  aloe  from  Corfu  and  Zante. 
Keference  may  also  be  made  to  the  aloe  lace  wrought  by  the  women  of 
Payal,  and  referred  to  in  this  work  under  Agave  americana. 

White  lace  may  be  made  of  flax,  cotton,  silk,  wool,  ramie,  and  pos- 
sibly other  fibers;  flax  and  cotton  are  rarely  colored.  Almost  all  black 
lace  is  silk  or  wool,  or  possibly  ramie,  though  as  yet  this  fiber  has  not 
come  into  general  use. 


Report  No.  9,  Office  of  Fiber  Investigations. 


Plate  I. 


Report  No.  9,  Office  of   Fiber  Investigations. 


Plate  II. 


•SVIIBwJ 


Report  No.  9,  Office  of  Fiber  Investigations 


Plate  III. 


'H'?'''''*^* 


1.    An  unidentified  Florida  Agave. 


2.    Pineapple  Plant,  Ananas  sativa. 


Report  No.  9,  Office  of  Fibei  Invesligations. 


Plate  IV. 


r>f   Fiber  Investigations 


Plate  V. 


Report  No.  9,  Office  of  Fiber  Investigations. 


Plate  VI. 


Report  No.  9,  Office  of  Fiber  Investigations, 


Plate  VII. 


Reoorl  No    9,  Office  of   Filxr  Invpstieatt. 


Plate  VIII. 


O 


o 


Report  No,  9,  Office  of   Fiber  Investigations 


Plate  IX. 


?rt  Mo   9,  O'fice  o'   Fiber  Inveslifrations 


Plate  X. 


Report  No.  9.  Office  of  Fiber  Investigations. 


Plate  XI. 


The  Tree  Yucca,  Yucca  areorescens. 


I 


Report  No.  9,  Office  of  Fiber  Investigations. 


Plate  XII. 


